Friday, August 20, 2010
PowerPoint Presentation On Mitochondria
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Mitochondria Presentation Transcript:
1. IntroductionMitochondria were first seen by kollicker in 1850 in muscles and called them ‘sarcosomes’ Flemming (1882) described these organelles as ‘filia’ Altmann (1890) observed these structures and named them ‘bioblasts’. Benda (1898)stained these organelles with crystal violet and renamed them ‘mitochondria’ Michaelis (1900) used janus green B as a vital stain to observe mitochondria in living cells.
2. Morphology
The shape of mitochondria is highly variable ranges from short rod shape to elongate filamentous form . The size of mitochondria is variable ,they generally measures about 0.5 to 2um in diameter. Mitochondria have an average length of 3 to 4um. The number of mitochondria varies from one cell type to another. Mitochondria are not found in prokaryotes.
3. Ultra Structure
A mitochondria is enclosed by a double membrane envelope composed of lipid and protein. The two membranes are separated by a narrow fluid –filled space called the outer compartment. The outer membrane is smooth, it is more permeable to small molecules, contains some enzymes but is poorer in proteins. The inner membrane surrounds a central cavity or matrix (inner compartment) filled with a fluid. Folds of inner wall of mitochondria are called cristae.
4. Inner Membrane
Inner membrane is the site of the e- transport chain, across which the proton pump occurs and contains ATP synthase Inner membrane is highly folded – called cristae – increasing the surface area on which the above reactions can take place
5. Mitochondrial Inner Membrane
The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to generate ATP. In typical liver mitochondria, for example, the surface area, including cristae, is about five times that of the outer membrane. Mitochondria of cells which have greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain more cristae than typical liver mitochondria.
6. Mitochondrial Outer Membrane
The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire organelle, has a protein-to-phospholipid ratio similar to the eukaryotic plasma membrane (about 1:1 by weight). It contains numerous integral proteins called porins, which contain a relatively large internal channel (about 2-3 nm) that is permeable to all molecules of 5000 daltons or less. Larger molecules, for example most proteins, can only traverse the outer membrane by active transport.
7. Double membrane creates 2 spaces Matrix – large internal space Intermembrane space – between the membranes Outer membrane Inner membrane
8. Chemical Composition
Mitochondria consists of protein-70 percent& lipids -25 -30percent. Mitochondria contain 0.5percent ofRNA &traces of DNA . Mitochondrial DNA comprises about 1 percent of total cell DNA Mitochondria contain enzymes for oxidation ,phosphorylation &electron transfer.
9. Generation of Energy
Millions of years ago there was no O2 available for oxidative phosphorylation to occur Organisms produced energy from fermentation, still see this today As O2 became available, a more efficient method of energy production developed Based on the transfer of e- along the membrane
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Thursday, August 19, 2010
PowerPoint Presentation On Genomic Library
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1. Genome - An IntroductionThe total DNA present in the nucleus of each cell of an organism is its Genome. It comes from the terms Gene and Chromosome. It corresponds to all the organism’s bases: A,T,C,G. Our genome is a chain of 3.4 billion ‘pearls’. The genomes of two different people differ on an average by on ‘pearl’ in one thousand. Genes represent only about 5% of the total human genome. The role of all the non-coding sequences that make up the remaining 95% is today unknown, but researches have been able to assign functions to some of those sequences: some regulate DNA replication and transcription; others contribute to the chromosomal structuring. The Human Genome Project, launched in the early 1990s has succeeded in the completing the draft of DNA sequence(2003) of our entire genome. Genome is divided into chromosomes, chromosomes contain genes, and genes are made of DNA.
2. The word “genome” was coined in about 1930, however at that time the scientists had very little information about the real meaning of the word “Genome”. Each one of the earth’s species has its own distinctive genome. Genomes belong to species,& they also belong to individuals. Every Giraffe on the African Savanna has a unique genome, as does every elephant, acacia tree, & ostrich. Unless individuals are identical twins, their genomes are different from each other & every other person on earth-in fact it differs for every single individual who has ever lived. The entire world is full of Genomes. A genome is the information that affects every aspect of our behavior & physiology. Cooking dinner, digesting food talking, sleeping, reading – the genome plays a role in all these things. Thus studying the genome gives us insights into why some people live longer than others, why some die of heart disease and others of cancer, why some people have trouble keeping weight on while others have trouble keeping it off and so on.
3. Gene Library
A gene library is a collection of different DNA sequences from an organism each of which has been cloned into a vector for ease of purification, storage and analysis. There are essentially two types of gene library that can be made depending upon the source of the DNA used. If the DNA is genomic DNA, the library is called a genomic library. If the DNA is a copy of an mRNA population, that is cDNA, then the library is called a cDNA library. Size of the gene library A gene library must contain a certain number of recombinants for there to be a high probability of it containing any particular sequence. This value can be calculated if the genome size and the average size of the insert in the vector are known. Construction of libraries For making libraries, genomic DNA, usually prepared by protease digestion and phase extraction, is fragmented randomly by physical shearing or restriction enzyme digestion to give a size range appropriate for the selected vector. Often combinations of restriction enzymes are used to partially digest the DNA. Vectors Plasmids, Lambda phage, cosmid, BAC or YAC( yeast artificial chromosome) vectors can be used to construct genomic libraries, the choice depending on the genome size. The upper size limit of these vectors is about 10, 23, 45, 350, & 100 kb respectively. The genomic DNA fragments are ligated to the prepared vector molecules using T4 DNA ligase.
4. Genomic DNA Libraries
These libraries are made from genomic DNA (all the DNA found in the organism’s nuclei). Genomic DNA molecules are very large (each chromosome in the nucleus is one such DNA molecule), so they must be fragmented into small pieces to insert into vectors. This is done through digestion using one or more appropriate restriction endonucleases, mechanical shearing, or a combination of the two processes. The DNA is then ligated into the vector, which could be a plasmid, a cosmid (more often) or a viral chromosome. cDNA Libraries These libraries are made from cDNA (complimentary DNA), which are DNA copies of mRNA molecules. To make cDNA, mRNA is isolated from a tissue or whole organism, and DNA is copied from the mRNA template using an enzyme called reverse transcriptase. This enzyme works like a DNA polymerase, except that it uses RNA as a template instead of DNA. The resulting cDNA molecules are then engineered so that they have restriction enzyme recognition sites at each end of every molecule, which allows them to be digested and inserted into a vector.
5. Genomic Libraries
Definitions A library produced when the complete genome of a particular organism is cleaved into thousands of fragments, and all the fragments are cloned by insertion into a cloning vector. A form of gene library containing the complete DNA sequences present in the genome of a given organism. A collection of clones made from a set of randomly generated overlapping DNA fragments representing the entire genome of an organism. A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid or a phage.
6. Construction of Genomic Libraries
The purpose of genomic library construction is to have an organism’s genome cloned as small fragments into separate vectors. Ideally the entire genome is represented: i.e., to say, the sum of the different fragments equals the entire genome. In this way specific groups of genes can be analyzed and isolated. The construction of a genomic library begins with cleaving the genome into small pieces by a restriction endonuclease. These genomic fragments are then either cloned into vectors & introduced into a microbe or packed into phage particles that are used to infect the host. In either case, many thousands of different clones- each with a different genomic DNA insert –are created. Therefore each clone will act as a “book” in this “library” of DNA fragments. If the genomic library has been inserted into a microbe that expresses the foreign gene, it may be possible to assay each clone for a specific protein or phenotype.
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PowerPoint Presentation On RNA Polymerase Enzyme
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RNA Polymerase Enzyme Presentation Transcript:
1. 1. The DNA replicates its information in a process that involves many enzymes: replication.
2. The DNA codes for the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) during transcription.
3. In eucaryotic cells, the mRNA is processed (essentially by splicing) and migrates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
4. Messenger RNA carries coded information to ribosomes. The ribosomes "read" this information and use it for protein synthesis. This process is called translation.
Proteins do not code for the production of protein, RNA or DNA. They are involved in almost all biological activities, structural or enzymatic.2. Transcription
Transcription is the process by which a single stranded RNA is formed from a single strand of DNA. The process involves : Uncoiling of the 2 strands of DNA in a specific region. It exposes the bases of the DNA strands. One strand of DNA remains dormant & the other one acts as the template for the formation of the new RNA strand. The building blocks the free nucleotides align themselves & form the complementary RNA according to the base pairing rule. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RNA Polymerase. RNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of phosphodiesterase bonds between nucleotides (using tri-phosphate nucleotides). RNA polymerase moves stepwise along the DNA extending the RNA chain as it goes. As RNA polymerase moves it unwinds the next part of the helix, the helix behind closes & the mRNA is displaced
3. RNA polymerase
(RNAP or RNApol) is an enzyme that makes a RNA copy of a DNA or RNA template. In cells, RNAP is needed for constructing RNA chains from DNA genes, a process called transcription. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. In chemical terms, RNAP is a nucleotidyl transferase that polymerizes ribonucleotides at the 3' end of an RNA transcript.
4. History RNA Polymerase
or RNAP was discovered independently by Sam Weiss & Jerard Hurwitz in 1960. In 2006, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Roger Kornberg for creating detailed molecular images of RNA polymerase during various stages of transcription.
5. Structure Of RNA Polymerase
RNA polymerase in Prokaryotes (Bacteria) : In bacteria, the same enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of mRNA RNAP is a relatively large molecule. The core enzyme has 5 subunits (~400 kDa):α2: the two α subunits assemble the enzyme and recognize regulatory factors. Each subunit has two domains: αCTD (C-Terminal domain) binds the UP element of the extended promoter, and αNTD (N-terminal domain) binds the rest of the polymerase. β: this has the polymerase activity (catalyzes the synthesis of RNA) which includes chain initiation and elongation. β': binds to DNA (nonspecifically). ω: restores denatured RNA polymerase to its functional form in vitro.
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PowerPoint Presentation On Quorum Sensing
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Quorum Sensing Presentation Transcript:
1. Introduction To Quorum Sensing- Cell to cell communication among procaryotes occurs by the exchange of small molecule often termed signal or signaling molecule. The exchanging of signaling molecule is essential in the co-ordination of gene expression of microbial population Quorum sensing is a type of decision-making process used by decentralized groups to coordinate behavior. Many species of bacteria use quorum sensing to coordinate their gene expression according to the local density of their population.
2. Quorum sensing was firstly discovered in the marine bioluminescent bacteria Vibrio fischeri , which produce light only if cells are at high density. It has been discovered that intercellular communication play an essential role in the regulation of gene whose products are needed for establishment of virulence, symbiosis , Biofilm production, plasmid transfer &morphological differentiation in a wide range of microbes.
3. Quorum Sensing
Fuqua et al. (1994) introduced the term quorum sensing to describe cell-cell signaling in bacteria Early 1990’s – homologs of LuxI were discovered in different bacterial species V. fischeri LuxI-LuxR signaling system becomes the paradigm for bacterial cell-cell communication
4. Methods & Mechanism
For a molecule to classed as a quorum sensing signal there are number of important criteria that need to be met → The production of the quorum sensing signal should takes place during specific stage of growth or in response to particular environment changes. The quorum sensing should accumulate in extra cellular environment & be recognized by a specific bacterial receptor.
5. The accumulation of a critical threshold concentration of the quorum sensing signal should be stimulate a response. The cellular response should extend beyond the physiological changes required to metabolized.
6. MECHANISM OF QUORUM SENSING IN GRAM-VE BACTERIA
For quorum sensing bacteria produce certain signaling compounds called as Auto inducer. Eg. N- acyl homoserin lactos (AHL) They have a receptor that detect AHL. AHL binds with the receptor it activate transcription of certain genes & also those for inducer synthesis.
7. Mechanism
When only few bacterias are present then concentration of AHL decreases or if number of bacteria are present then concentration of AHL increases. When many kinds of bacterias are present concentration of inducer AHL posses the threshold. It causes a +ve feed back loop & receptor become active.
8. MECHANISM
Species of gram –ve bacteria signaling transfer a series of AHL & it’s concentration exceed a threshold i.e. the cell population over a certain no., the promoter plux transcription is activates.
9. Quorum Sensing in Gram-Positive Bacteria Gram-positive bacteria utilizes modified oligopeptides as signaling molecules – secreted via an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter complex Detectors for these signals are two-component signal transduction systems
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PowerPoint Presentation On Proteins
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1. Proteins- IntroductionThe word protein comes from the Greek ("prota"), meaning "of primary importance" and these molecules were first described and named by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1838. However, proteins' central role in living organisms was not fully appreciated until 1926, when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a protein. The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger, who won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958. The first protein structures to be solved included hemoglobin and myoglobin, by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew, respectively, in 1958. Both proteins' three-dimensional structures were first determined by x-ray diffraction analysis; the structures of myoglobin and hemoglobin won the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discoverers.
2. Proteins
Proteins are large complex molecules composed of long chains of amino acids called polypeptides. Proteins are polymers and amino acids are their monomers. C,H,O,S are the elements found in the proteins.
3. Amino Acids
There are 20 amino acids that are common to all life forms. The number and arrangement of these 20 amino acids yields infinite variety of proteins
4. Amino Acids are classified by their “Alkyl” “R” Group: Acidic Amino acid Basic Amino Acids Polar Amino Acids Non-Polar Amino Acids
5. Peptide Bonds Joins two amino acids into a dipeptide Bond forms between carboxyl group of one amino acid and amine group of the second amino acid Peptide bond forms by a condensation reaction losing a molecule of water with each bond
6. Primary Protein Structure
7. Helix
Most abundant 2' structure in proteins Average length = 10 aa's (~10 Angstroms) Length varies from 5-40 aa's Alignment of H-bonds creates dipole moment (positive charge at NH end) Often at surface of core, with hydrophobic residues on inner-facing side, hydrophilic on other side
8. Types of helices
"Standard" helix: 3.6 residues per turn H-bonds between C=0 of residue n and NH of residue n + 4 Helix ends are polar; almost always on surface of protein
9. Certain amino acids are "preferred" & others are rare in helices Ala, Glu, Leu, Met = good helix formers Pro, Gly Tyr, Ser = very poor Amino acid composition & distribution varies, depending on location of helix in 3-D structure
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PowerPoint Presentation On Biosensor
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Biosensor Presentation Transcript:
1. Introduction /DefinitionA biosensor is a device for the detection of an analyte that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector component. OR A biosensor is an analytical devices which employs a biological material to specifically interact with an analyte.
2. Biosensor consists of 3 parts:-
Sensitive biological element & analyte. Transducer or the detector element. Electronic or signal processor / Amplifier.
3. Components of biosensor:-
Analyte. Biological material. Transducer. Amplifier. LED screen/ PC.
4. Sensitive biological element:-
Biological material a biologically derived material or can be created by biological engineering. Biological material is like tissue, cell receptor, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acid etc. The biological component of biosensor performs the following two key function - It specifically recognizes the analyte . Interacts with it in such a manner , which produces some physical change detectable by the transducer.
5. Transducer or the detector element:-
The biological component interacts specifically to the analyte, which produced a physical change close to the transducer surface. Transducer detects & measures this change and converts it into an electrical signal. Transducer work in a physicochemical way, optical way, piezoelectric way, electrochemical way etc.
6. Analyte:-
An analyte is a compound whose concentration is to be determined by the biosensor. The nature of interaction between the analyte and the biological material used, the biosensor may be of two types – The analyte may be converted into a new chemical molecule , such biosensor are called CATALYTIC BIOSENSOR. The analyte may simply bind to the biological material, these biosensor are known as AFFINITY BIOSENSOR.
7. Immobilization of Biological element:-
A biosensor makes use of a biological molecule (an enzyme ) that is immobilized to detect an analyte. The immobilization permits repeated use of the costly biological molecule.
8. Working principle of biosensor:-
The biosensor convert a chemical information flow, into an electrical information flow, which involves the following steps - 1.The analyte diffuses from the solution to the surface of the biosensor. 2.The analyte react specifically & efficiently with the biological component of the biosensor. 3.This reaction change the physicochemical properties of the transducer surface. 4.This leads to a change in the optical/electronic properties of the transducer surface. 5.The change in optical/electronic properties is measured/ converted into electrical signal, which is amplified, processed and displayed.
9. Features of biosensor:-
A successful biosensor must have at least some of the following features – Highly specific for analyte. Independent of factors like stirring, pH, temp., etc. Linear response, tiny and biocompatible. Cheap, easy to use & durable/repeated use. Cost is lower than that of conventional tests. Require small sample volume. Rapid, accurate, stable, & sterilizable.
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PowerPoint Presentation On Nitrogen Metabolism
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Nitrogen Metabolism Presentation Transcript:
1. NITROGEN METABOLISMNitrogen Fixation can be defined as the conversion of molecular nitrogen into fixed form of nitrogen to make it available for absorption by plants. It is the third most important process after respiration and photosynthesis. It is essential for all living organisms.
2. BIOLOGICAL N2 FIXATION
Conversion of elemental nitrogen or gaseous nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds or salts by certain microorganisms like bacteria ,blue green algae, fungi etc. is called biological nitrogen fixation. It is carried by two types of micro- organisms. Eg Symbiotic and non-symbiotic.
3. NON-SYMBIOTIC N2 FIXATION
The Fixation of free nitrogen of the soil by all those micro-organisms living freely or outside the cell is called as non-symbiotic biological N2 fixation.
4. SYMBIOTIC N2 FIXATION
The Fixation of free nitrogen of the soil by microorganisms living symbiotically inside the plant, is called as symbiotic biological N2-fixation. The term “symbiosis” is coined by De bary in 1879.
5. CLASSIFICATION
Nitrogen Fixation Through Nodule Formation in Leguminous plants. N2 Fixation through Nodule formation in Non-leguminous Plants. N2-Fixation through Non-Nodulation.
6. N2-FIXATION IN NON- LEGUMINACEOUS PLANTS
In addition to legumes, there are many plants specially trees and shrubs belonging to families other than Leguminosae which produce root-nodules. Eg- Casuarina- Frankia Alnus- Frankia Myrica- Frankia Parasponia- Rhizobium
7. N2 Fixation through Non-nodulation It includes those plants where root nodules are not formed but symbiotic N2-fixation takes place. Examples- Lichens - associated with fungi and algae Azolla- Anabaena azollae. Cycas –Anabaena or Nostoc Gunnera macrophylla- Nostoc
8. Associative Symbiotic N2-Fixation
When the bacteria live in close association with the roots of cereals and grasses and fix nitrogen than the association is of loose mutualism type and is called associative symbiosis whereas this nitrogen Fixation is called associative symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Examples- Azotobactor paspali – Associated with Paspalum notatum Azospirillum brasilense- Cereal roots Beijerinckia- Sugarcane roots
9. LEGHEMOGLOBIN
The red pigment of the nodules is called leg-hemoglobin and appears to be a product of the Rhizoboium-legume complex. The pigment is not present in either organism grown alone. It is a reddish pigment found in the cytoplasm of host cells. It is an oxygen carrier & an efficient O2 scavenger
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PowerPoint Presentation On Mutations
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1. MUTATIONSMutation are heritable changes in the genetic material. They result from small changes in the genetic material (single gene mutations), rearrangements in chromosome structure (chromosome mutations), or changes in chromosome number( genome mutations).
2. MUTATIONS CAN OCCUR IN TWO WAYS:
Spontaneous mutation Induced mutations
3. SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS
Spontaneous mutations can arise from transition, transversion and frameshifts), from dNA lesions (replication errors (apurinic sites, apyrimidinic sites, oxidation ), and from insertions.
4. TRANSITION MUTATIONS
The tautomeric shifts changes the hydrogen bonding characteristics of the bases allowing purine for purine, pyrimidine for pyrimidine substitution that eventually leads to a stable alteration of nucleotide sequences. Such alterations are known as transition mutation.
5. TRANSVERSION MUTATION
In transversion mutations, a purine is substituted for a pyrimidine, or a pyrimidine for purine. These mutations are rare due to steric problems of pairing purine with purine and pyrimidine with pyrimidine.
6. INDUCED MUTATIONS
Induced mutation are caused by mutagens. Mutations may result from the incorporation of base analogs, specific misparing due to alteration of a base, the presence of intercalating agents, and a by pass of replication because of severe damage.
7. BASE ANALOGS
Base analogs are structurally similar to normal nitrogenous bases and can be incorporated into the growing polynucleotide chain during replication. Once in place, these compounds typically exhibit base pairing properties different from the bases they replace and eventually causes stable mutations.
8. SPECIFIC MISPAIRING
Specific mispairing is caused when a mutagen changes a base structure and therefore alters its base pairing characteristics. Some mutagens in this category are fairly selective; they preferentially react with some bases and produce a specific kind of DNA damage.
9. INTERCALATING AGENTS
Intercalating agents distort DNA to induce single nucleotide pair insertion and deletion. These mutagens are planar and insert themselves (intercalate) between the stacked bases of the helix.
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PowerPoint Presentation On The Cell Wall
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The Cell Wall Presentation Transcript:
1. INTRODUCTIONThe plant cell wall is a remarkable structure. It provides the most significant difference between plant cells and other eukaryotic cells. The cell wall is rigid (up to many micrometers in thickness) and gives plant cells a very defined shape. While most cells have a outer membrane, none is comparable in strength to the plant cell wall. The cell wall is the reason for the difference between plant and animal cell functions. Because the plant has evolved this rigid structure.
2. On the basis of chemical composition of cell wall there are three types of cell wall: 1) Green Plant Cell Wall : which is made up of Cellulose. 2) Cell Wall of Fungi: made up of Chitin. 3) Bacteria Cell Wall: made up of Mucopeptide and Muramic Acid. The cell wall is composed of Cellulose, fibres, polysaccharides and proteins i.e Living Protoplast. It consist of the following: Middle lamella Primary Cell Wall Secondary Cell Wall Tertiary Cell Wall
3. 1. MIDDLE LAMELLA
It is present between two adjacent cells. It is situated outside primary cell wall and is made up of calcium and magnesium pectate. It acts as cement which holds the adjacent cells together.
2. PRIMARY CELL WALL It is present beneath Middle lamella. It is made up of Cellulose, Hemi-cellulose, pectic substances, lipids, proteins, minerals, elements and water.
4. 3. SECONDARY CELL WALL
It is present beneath Primary Cell wall. It is made up of Cellulose, Hemi-cellulose and polysaccharides. Secondary Cell wall is deposited Lignin.
4. TERTIARY CELL WALL Tertiary Cell wall is deposited in few cells. It is considered to be dry residue of protoplast. Besides Cellulose and Hemi-cellulose, Xylan is also present.
5. On the whole, each cell's cell wall interacts with its neighbours to form a tightly bound plant structure. Despite the rigidity of the cell wall, chemical signals and cellular excretions are allowed to pass between cells.
6. The primary wall of cells are capable of expansion. The middle lamella is formed during cell division and grows coordinately during cell expansion. Contact between certain cells is maintained by the middle lamella , and the cell corners are often filled with pectin rich polysaccharides. In older cells the material in the cell corners is sometimes degraded and an air space formes.
7. Plant cell walls
Are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein May have multiple layers
8. Cell Wall components
Cellulose Other carbohydrates Lignin (other polyphenolics) Proteins
9. Carbohydrates
Classified by solubilities Pectins – complex carbohydrates extracted in water using Calcium chelators Polyuronic acids Arabinans Glactans Hemicelluloses – soluble in 4M KOH Xylans - common Mannans – abundant in conifers Arabinoglactans Microfibrillar components Cellulose Beta 1,4 mannans - algae Beta 1,3 xylans - algae
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PowerPoint Presentation On Carbohydrates
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1. INTRODUCTIONThe name Carbohydrates indicates that they are hydrates of Carbon, and contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Most of them contain hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 2:1. For that reason, the general empirical formula of carbohydrates is given as [C(H2O)]n e.g,glucose is (C6H12O6) carbohydrates may be defined as Polyhydroxy aldehyde or Ketone or substances that yield these on hydrolysis.e.g.glucose is a polyhydroxy aldehyde and fructose is a polyhydroxy ketone. The names of carbohydrates often end in the suffix-ose.
2. IMPORTANCE
The carbohydrates often termed as Sugars,are the “staff of life” for most organisms. Carbohydrates are also known as Saccharides(Sakcharon=sugar or sweetness). They are widely distributed molecules in both plant and animal tissues. They are indispensable for living organisms,serving as skeletal structures in plants and also in insects and crustaceans. They also occur as food reserves in the storage organs of plants and in liver and muscles of animals. In addition,they are an important source of energy required for the various metabolic activities of the living organisms;the energy being derived as a result of their oxidation.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
The naturally occurring carbohydrates may be classified into three main groups,particularly on the basis of their behaviour towards hydrolysis. Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group,the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde,the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is ketone;the monosaccharide is a ketose.Monosaccharide with three carbon atoms are called trioses,those with four are called tetroses,five are called pentoses,six are called hexoses.
4. MONOSACCHARIDES(GK:Mono=one;Sakcharon=sugar)
They are the simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds. Their general formula is CnH2nOn,where n varies from 3to7.The most important are the pentoses and hexoses.
5. OLIGOSACCHARIDES(GK:oligo=few;Sakcharon=sugar)
On hydrolysis they generally yield 2 to 9 molecules of monosaccharides which are sugars and include di-, tri-tetrasaccharides etc. The monosaccharides are joined together by glycosidic bonds. glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The most abundant are the disaccharides, which consist of two monosaccharide units.
6. POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are the carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharides on hydrolysis. They contain greater than ten monosaccharide units.
7. REACTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides possess some characteristic properties due to the presence of some specific groups,namely aldehydic,alcoholic,alchol-aldehydic,and α-glycolic. Oxidation with acids: With mild oxidants(like HOBr):-Only the aldehyde group is oxidized to produce monocarbolic acids.Ketoses,however don’t respond to this reaction.Hence reaction is used to distinguish aldoses from ketoses.
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PowerPoint Presentation On Apoptosis
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Apoptosis Presentation Transcript:
1. APOPTOSISApoptosis means “programed cell death”. It’s role in cell population control during growth and development suggests that there are inherent cellular mechanisms that lead the cell to destruction. It is a form of cell death which is different from any other form of cell death-necrosis.
2. INTRODUCTION
Cell death by injury -Mechanical damage -Exposure to toxic chemicals Cell death by suicide -Internal signals -External signals
3. Conted…..
Apoptosis or programmed cell death, is carefully coordinated collapse of cell, protein degradation , DNA fragmentation followed by rapid engulfment of corpses by neighbouring cells. (Tommi, 2002) Essential part of life for every multicellular organism from worms to humans. (Faddy et al.,1992) Apoptosis plays a major role from embryonic development to senescence.
4. History of cell death / apoptosis
research 1800s Numerous observation of cell death 1908 Mechnikov wins Nobel prize (phagocytosis) 1930-40 Studies of metamorphosis 1948-49 Cell death in chick limb & exploration of NGF 1955 Beginning of studies of lysomes 1964-66 Necrosis & PCD described 1971 Term apoptosis coined 1977 Cell death genes in C. elegans 1980-82 DNA ladder observed & ced-3 identified 1989-91 Apoptosis genes identified, including bcl-2, fas/apo1 & p53, ced-3 sequenced (Richerd et.al., 2001)
5. Why should a cell commit suicide?
Apoptosis is needed for proper development Examples: The resorption of the tadpole tail The formation of the fingers and toes of the fetus The sloughing off of the inner lining of the uterus The formation of the proper connections between neurons in the brain Apoptosis is needed to destroy cells Examples: Cells infected with viruses Cells of the immune system Cells with DNA damage Cancer cells
6. What makes a cell decide to commit suicide?
Withdrawal of positive signals examples : growth factors for neurons Interleukin-2 (IL-2) Receipt of negative signals examples : increased levels of oxidants within the cell damage to DNA by oxidants death activators : Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-) Lymphotoxin (TNF-β) Fas ligand (FasL)
7. Necrosis vs. Apoptosis
Cellular swelling Membranes are broken ATP is depleted Cell lyses, eliciting an inflammatory reaction DNA fragmentation is random, or smeared In vivo, whole areas of the tissue are affected Cellular condensation Membranes remain intact Requires ATP Cell is phagocytosed, no tissue reaction Ladder-like DNA fragmentation In vivo, individual cells appear affected
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PowerPoint Presentation On Genetic Recombination
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1. Genetic RecombinationINTRODUCTION : Genetic recombination is the process by which a strand of DNA is broken and then joined to the end of a different DNA molecule. In eukaryotes recombination commonly occurs during meiosis as chromosomal crossover between paired chromosomes. This process leads to offspring having different combinations of genes from their parents and can produce new chimeric alleles. In evolutionary biology this shuffling of genes is thought to have many advantages
2. A recombination pathway in DNA is any way by which a broken DNA molecule is reconnected to form a whole DNA strand. In molecular biology "recombination" can also refer to artificial and deliberate recombination of disparate pieces of DNA, often from different organisms, creating what is called recombinant DNA.
3. SISTER CHROMATID EXCHANGE
When crossing over occurs between sister chromatids its called sister chromatid exchange . sister chromatid are genetically identical to each other, wit,sce does not produce a recombination of alleles. Therefore it is not considered a form of recombination .By comparison , it is also common for homologous chromosomes to cross over.
4. Perry and wolf produced harlequin chromosomes to reveal recombination between sister chromatid. In 1970s, The Russian cytogeneticist A.F ZAKHROV AND COLLEAGUES spent much more effort developing methods that inproved our ability to identify chromoes.They mode the intresting observation that chromes labled with the nucleotide analogue 5- bromo deoxyurinide become more fluorescent when stained with giemsa and then visualized microscopically.
5. Perry and wolff, grew eukaryotic cells in a laboratory and exposed them to BrdU for two rounds of DNA replication . after the second round of DNA replication , one of the sister chromatid contained one normal strand and one BrdU labled strand. The other sister chronatid have two BrdU –labled strands . when treated with two dyes , Hoechst33258 and giemsa , the sister chromatid containing two strands with BrdU stains very weakly and appears light, whereas the sister chromatid with only one strand containing BrdU stains much more strongly and appears very dark. In this way , the two sister chromatid can be distinguished microscopically . chromosomes stained in this way have been regerred to as harlequin chromosomes , because they are reminiscent of a harlequin characters costumes with its variegated pattern of light and dark patches.
6. HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION
Refers to recombination between the paired chromosomes inherited from each of one's parents, generally occurring during meiosis. During prophase I the four available chromatids are in tight formation with one another. While in this formation, homologous sites on two chromatids can mesh with one another, and may exchange genetic information. Because recombination can occur with small probability at any location along chromosome, the frequency of recombination between two locations depends on their distance. Chromosomes are expected to cross over at many points along their length; independently.
7. The Holliday Model of Genetic Recombination
This model of recombination was first proposed by Robin Holliday in 1964 and re-established by David Dressler and Huntington Potter in 1976 who demonstrated that the proposed physical intermediates existed. Alignment two homologous DNA molecules. Nick the DNA at the same place on the two molecules. This must happen in strands with the same polarity.
8. Exchange strands and ligate.
The intermediate that is formed is called a Holliday intermediate or Holliday structure. The shape of this intermediate in vivo is similar to that of the greek letter chi, hence this is also called a chi form.
9. Resolution of the structure.
There are two ways in which this can happen: If the same strands are cleaved a second time then the original two DNA molecules are generated: If the other strands are cleaved, then recombinant molecules are generated:
10. For more please refer our PPT. Thanks.
Wednesday, August 18, 2010
Best PPT Provider Of The Week
Hello friends as you know, some day before we announced a contest which name was Best PPT Provider so now we are going to announce the result of the contest.
The winner of the contest is Mr. Manish Ojha who is now doing MBA from JECRC School Of Management , JAIPUR (RAJASTHAN). in Finance .His PPT Is Sales and Distribution Management
NAME: Manish Ojha
EDU.: Persuring MBA.
Phone No. : +91-9928928607
Email Id : manish.ojha219@gmail.com
HOBBIES: TRAVELING, LISTENING MUSIC.
STRENGTH:GOOD IN COMMUNICATION SKILLS.
If you want your pic here just send us some good PPTs which are made by you, if your PPT is selected in our contest we promote you just like this for one week.so send your PPTs as much as possible to us by just going to our Submit PPT Section.
The winner of the contest is Mr. Manish Ojha who is now doing MBA from JECRC School Of Management , JAIPUR (RAJASTHAN). in Finance .His PPT Is Sales and Distribution Management
EDU.: Persuring MBA.
Phone No. : +91-9928928607
Email Id : manish.ojha219@gmail.com
HOBBIES: TRAVELING, LISTENING MUSIC.
STRENGTH:GOOD IN COMMUNICATION SKILLS.
If you want your pic here just send us some good PPTs which are made by you, if your PPT is selected in our contest we promote you just like this for one week.so send your PPTs as much as possible to us by just going to our Submit PPT Section.
Biotechnology PPTs
Here you get biotechnology PPTs
- Cancer
- Cytokines
- Lipids
- Microscopic Techniques
- Viruses
- Genomic Library
- RNA Polymerase Enzyme
- Quorum Sensing
- Proteins
- Biosensor
- Nanotechnology
- DNA
- Nitrogen Metabolism
- Mutations
- The Cell Wall
- Carbohydrates
- Apoptosis
- Genetic Recombination
- Mitochondria
- Transcription
- Gene Regulation
- Microbiological Study Of Milk
- Plant Tissue Culture
- Gene Expression
- History Of Genetic Engineering
- Bilirubin And CRP In Human Blood Sample
- Antibacterial Activity Of Plants
- Urine
- Liver
- HIV Aids
- Tests For Serum Cholesterol Triglycecrides And Glucose
- Diagnosis Of Tuberculosis
- Hepatitis B In Human Blood Sample
- Arthritis
- Antigen Antibody Interaction Techniques
- Diabetes
- Measles
- Oral Liquids Capsules And Syrups
- B Complex Lysine Syrup
- Medical Microbiology
- Molecular Biology And Biotechnology
- Withania Somnifera
- Paracetamol Tablet
- Fiscal Consolidation
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Rheumatoid Arthritis
- Regulation of Gene Expression
- Evolution
- Multiple Sclerosis
- Colorectal Cancer
- Electron Probe Microanalysis EPMA
- Genetically Engineered Plants
- Human Genome Project
- GENOMIC IMPRINTING
- MICROBIAL EVOLUTION, SYSTEMATIC AND TAXONOMY
- Light Microscopy
- Molecular Diagnostic Techniques
- GENETIC ENGINEERING OF NITROGEN FIXATION
- Pedigree Analysis
- Control of Microbial Growth
- Plants in response to stress
- Biofilms and Quorum Sensing
- Recombinant DNA
- EVALUATION IN PLANT UNDER SODIUM CHLORIDE STRESS
- Breast Cancer
- Mesothelioma Treatment Options
- Types of Cancer
- Water And Minerals
- The Heart
- Introduction To PROTEINS
- Osteoporosis
- Introduction To Carbohydrates
- Introduction To Alzheimer's Disease
- 5 Amazing Medical Miracles
- Amazing Medical Miracles
- 5 Ways to Re-Hydrate and Heal Your Body
- 7 Alarming Signs You Are Unhealthy
- 10 Rights of Medication Administration
- 10 Most Shocking Things Found In People's Stomachs
- ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY
- Formation and Nutritional Aspects of Alcohol
- Heart Anatomy and Physiology
- Overweight and Obesity
- DRUG TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
- Digoxin
- Sports Nutrition
- SCHIZOPHRENIA
- Top 10 Medicinal Plants and Herbs
- Tuberculosis
- AMINO ACID ANALYSIS
- ANTI TUMOR DRUGS
- AORTA AND PERIPHERAL ARTERIES ANATOMY And VISUALIZATION
- ASTHMA
- Biological Aspects Of Enzymology
- ENZYMES
- CELLULAR AGING
- CHROMATOGRAPHY
- DOSAGE FORMS
- Engineered Protein
- CARBOHYDRATE CONTAINING DRUGS
- Ion Exchange Chromatography
- Chromatographic Techniques
- Production Of Enzymes By Fermentation Method
- Protein Purification and Analysis
Tuesday, August 17, 2010
PowerPoint Presentation On Cluster Computing
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Cluster Computing Presentation Transcript:
1. Cluster computing is the technique of linking two or more computers into a network (usually through a local area network) in order to take advantage of the parallel processing power of those computers.2. Computing Need Overview Requirements for computing increasing fast. Main reasons: More data to process. More compute intensive algorithms available. Approaches to supply demand: Qualitative: Optimized algorithms, faster processors, more memory. Quantitative: Cluster computing, grid computing, etc.
3. Components
The components critical to the development of low cost clusters are: 1. Processors 2. Memory 3. Networking Components 4. Motherboards, busses, and other sub-systems
4. IT Limitations
An eternal struggle in any IT department is in finding a method to squeeze the maximum processing power out of a limited budget. Today more than ever, enterprises require enormous processing power in order to manage their desktop applications, databases and knowledge management . Many business processes are extremely heavy users of IT resources, and yet IT budgets struggle to keep pace with the ever growing demand for yet more power.
5. Types of Computer Clusters
There are several different varieties of computer clusters, each offering different advantages to the user. These varieties are: High Availability Clusters Load-balancing Clusters High-performance Clusters
6. Types of Computer Clusters
1. High Availability Clusters HA Clusters are designed to ensure constant access to service applications. The clusters are designed to maintain redundant nodes that can act as backup systems in the event of failure. The minimum number of nodes in a HA cluster is two – one active and one redundant – though most HA clusters will use considerably more nodes.
7. 2. Load-balancing Clusters
Load-balancing clusters operate by routing all work through one or more load-balancing front-end nodes, which then distribute the workload efficiently between the remaining active nodes. Load-balancing clusters are extremely useful for those working with limited IT budgets. Devoting a few nodes to managing the workflow of a cluster ensures that limited processing power can be optimised.
8. 3. High-performance Clusters
HPC clusters are designed to exploit the parallel processing power of multiple nodes. They are most commonly used to perform functions that require nodes to communicate as they perform their tasks – for instance, when calculation results from one node will affect future results from another.
9. Benefits of Computer Clusters
Computer clusters offer a number of benefits over mainframe computers, including: Reduced Cost Processing Power Improved Network Technology Scalability Availability
10. For more please refer our PPT. Thanks.
PowerPoint Presentation On Nokia Morph Concept
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Nokia Morph Concept Presentation Transcript:
1. Firstly IntroduceLaunched alongside The Museum of Modern Art “Design and The Elastic Mind” exhibition, the Morph concept device is a bridge between highly advanced technologies and their potential benefits to end-users.
2. MORPH CONCEPT THE WORD “MORPH” MEANS :-
Transform Quickly Change Shape
3. Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale.
4. Sensing Morph enables us to to observe our local environment. Morph can detect specific chemical compound in air
5. Nanoscale-Grass
Nanowire grass produce solar energy. Nanomaterial enables solar energy on a large scale Ex:-future building can be covered by solar cell
6. Self-Cleaning Nanotechnology
also can be leveraged to create self-cleaning surfaces on mobile devices, ultimately reducing corrosion, wear and improving longevity. Nanostructured surfaces, such as “Nanoflowers” naturally repel water, dirt, and even fingerprints utilizing effects also seen in natural systems.
7. Stretchable A folded design
would fit easily in a pocket and an unfolded larger design could display more detailed information, and incorporate input devices such as keyboards and touch pads.
8. Spider-Silk
A Nanoscale mesh of fibers controls the stretching when the device is folded
9. Transparent-Electronics
Nanoscale structure is invisible to human eye
10. For more please refer our PPT. Thanks.
PowerPoint Presentation On Sun Solaris Os
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Sun Solaris Os Presentation Transcript:
1.
Solaris is a UNIX based operating system introduced by Sun Microsystems in 1992 as the successor to SunOS.
Solaris is known for its scalability especially on SPARC systems, and for originating many innovative features such as Dtrace and ZFS. Solaris supports SPARC-based and x86-based workstations and servers from Sun and other vendors.2. Solaris includes some of the world's most advanced security features, such as Process and User Rights Management,Cryptographic Framework and Secure By Default Networking that allow you to safely deliver new solutions. It delivers indisputable performance advantages for database, Web, and Java technology-based services,shattering world records by delivering unbeatable price/performance advantages Solaris is fully supported on more than 900 SPARC-based and x64/x86-based systems from top manufacturers, including systems from Sun, Dell, HP, and IBM.
3. The Solaris OS includes industry-first virtualization features such as Solaris Containers, which let you consolidate, isolate, and protect thousands of applications on a single server. With its optimized network stack and support for today’s advanced network computing protocols, Solaris 10 delivers high-performance networking to most applications without modification. Sun Services provides a broad portfolio of support and service offerings so you can get what you need.
4. The Solaris 10 release gives you observability into your system with tools such as Solaris Dynamic Tracing (DTrace), which enables real-time application debugging and optimization. 1.DTRACE DTrace is a dynamic troubleshooting and analysis tool first introduced in the Solaris 10 and OpenSolaris operating systems
5. A tool A programming language interpreter An instrumentation framework What is DTrace for Troubleshooting software bugs Detailed observability Capturing profiling data for performance analysis
6. Solaris offers dramatic advances in file system and volume management by delivering virtually unlimited capacity and near-zero administration.. ZFS(Zettabyte File System ) In computing, ZFS is a file system designed by Sun Microsystems for the Solaris Operating System.
7. Thanks.
Related Project Report:
Sun Solaris
Monday, August 16, 2010
PowerPoint Presentation On Mozilla Firefox
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Mozilla Firefox Presentation Transcript:
1. What is Firefox?Mozilla Firefox is a free, open source, cross platform, graphical web browser developed by the Mozilla Corporation. Firefox includes an integrated pop-up blocker, tabbed browsing, live bookmarks, support for open standards, and an extension mechanism for adding functionality. Although other browsers have introduced these features, Firefox became the first such browser to achieve wide adoption.
2. Where can I get Firefox?
You can get the most recent version of Firefox (1.5) from the Official Mozilla Firefox site, www.getfirefox.com (www.mozilla.com/firefox) To get previous versions of Mozilla Firefox, go to www.oldversion.com/program.php?n=firefox
3. Why choose Firefox?
The browser has a number of features which help users find information. First, it has a find as you type feature. It also has a built-in search toolbar. You can customize Firefox through extensions. Extensions activate new features. Extensions can be easily updated through the Mozilla Update website. Firefox also supports themes/skins, which change the appearance. Firefox is also cross-platform. It can be used on Windows, Mac OS X, Linux and other small Operating Systems. It can also be used on a USB Flash Drive with a Portable Version of Firefox.
4. Who made Firefox?
The Mozilla Corporation made the Firefox browser. The Mozilla Corporation is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Mozilla Foundation that develops, distributes and promotes the Internet-related applications, including the Mozilla Firefox web browser and the Mozilla Thunderbird email client.
5. How did Firefox become how it is now?
Firefox has developed considerably since its first release as Phoenix on September 23, 2002. Pre-1.0 releases suffered many issues with extensions, as the code for handling them changed from version to version. Throughout its development, Firefox versions have had internal codenames. “Deer Park" was originally destined to become Firefox 1.1. However, Mozilla Foundation decided to change the version number of the next major release from "1.1" to "1.5", since it contained more new features than originally planned. In an attempt to dissuade end-users from downloading the preview versions, "Deer Park" versions do not use the standard Mozilla Firefox branding. On November 29, 2005, Firefox 1.5 was officially released.
6. Statistics About Firefox?
With over 25 million downloads in the 99 days after the initial 1.0 release, Firefox became one of the most downloaded free and open source applications, especially among home users. On October 19, 2005, Firefox had its 100 millionth download, just 344 days after the release of version 1.0. Firefox 1.5 was released on November 29, 2005, with more than 2 million downloads within the first 36 hours. On March 21, 2006, Mozilla released the first alpha version of Firefox 2.0 under the name of Bon Echo Alpha 1, with all Firefox branding, including icons, removed to discourage end-users from downloading it.
7. Firefox Future Development?
According to the roadmap, future Firefox development will include version 2.0 and version 3.0. Development for version 2.0 will occur on the 1.8 branch from which version 1.5 was released, with release coming off of the yet-to-be-created 1.8.1 branch, while development on version 3.0 occurs simultaneously on the Mozilla trunk. Mozilla is developing versions 2.0 and 3.0 simultaneously in order to ship front-end innovation in version 2.0 built on a more stable back-end, while completing major architectural changes for version 3.0. The development name for Mozilla Firefox 2.0 is Bon Echo. The alpha (2.0a1) version became available on March 21, 2006, and, according to Mozilla, is aimed primarily at the developer and testing community. There are still some bugs present, so any downloads of Bon Echo should be taken with a grain of salt.
8. GET FIREFOX!!!
www.getfirefox.com
9. Thanks.
PowerPoint Presentation On Electrical Equipment Control Using Mobile Phone
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Electrical Equipment Control Using Mobile Phone Presentation Transcript:
1. IC-CM8870
IC-74LS138
IC-CD4013
IC-7805(Regulator)
RELAYS
TRANSISTOR-BC547
LEDS
CRYSTAL-35795MHZ
TRANSFORMER
DIODE(1N4007)
RESISTANCE
CAPACITOR
POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENT2. Electrical Equipment Control using mobile Phone
3. Lighting and Appliance control Security systems & Access control Entertainment Systems Communication systems Thermostats Irrigation Data Systems Almost Anything Else you can think of
4. Future Aspects:-
Industrial Automation Using Computer. Micro Controller Based Pre-Programmed.
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PowerPoint Presentation On Prepaid Energy meter
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Prepaid Energy meter Presentation Transcript:
1. INTRODUCTIONA scheme of Electricity billing system called “PREPAID ENERGY METER WITH TARIFF INDICATOR” can facilitate in improved cash flow management in energy utilities and can reduces problem associated with billing consumer living in isolated area and reduces deployment of manpower for taking meter readings
2. COMPONENTS USED:
AT89S52 AT24CO2 ULN2003 16*2 LCD MCT2E CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CAPACITORS RESISTORS BUZZER POWER SUPPLY LOAD
3. WORKING
In our project we have given the name for memory card as smart card. When the consumer insert a smart card into the card reader which is connected in “prepaid energy meter with tariff indicator”kit.Then the card reader will read the stored information and delete the information from the EEPROM IC(smart card) using the MC program. So that the smart card cannot be reused by others. Suppose if a consumer buy a card for Rs.50/- he / she can insert this amount through the card reader so that prepaid energy meter with tariff indicator kit will be activated. According to the power consumption the amount will be reduced. When the amount is over, the relay will automatically shutdown the whole system.
4. Thanks.
PowerPoint Presentation On Barcode Technology
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Barcode Technology Presentation Transcript:
1. BAR CODE TECHNOLOGYBAR CODE TERMINOLOGY Types of barcode BAR CODE SCANNERS Types of scanners BENEFITS OF BAR CODING
2. BAR CODE TECHNOLOGY
It is an automatic identification technology Bar code is a predefined format of dark bars and white spaces It contain a specific information It allows real-time data to be collected accurately and rapidly Combination of barcode technology with computer and application software improves performance, And productivity
3. BAR CODE TERMINOLOGY
BAR - The darker, non reflective element of a Bar Code BI-DIRECTIONAL SYMBOL - A Bar Code symbol format which permits reading in either direction across the bars and spaces CHECK DIGIT - A calculated character included within the Bar Code for error detection FIXED BEAM SCANNER - A stationary Bar Code Scanner. The symbol must be moved through the light beam to be read
4. TERMINOLOGY …
SPACE The lighter, reflective element of a Bar Code START CHARACTER A special pattern of bars and spaces used to identify the beginning of a Bar Code symbol STOP CHARACTER A special pattern of bars and spaces used to identify the end of a Bar Code symbol
5. Types of barcode
Alpha-numeric barcodes Numeric-only barcodes 2-Dimensional barcodes
6. Numeric-only barcodes UPC-
A: - Universal product code seen on almost all retail products in the USA and Canada EAN-13: - European Article Numbering international retail product code Codabar: - Older code often used in library systems, sometimes in blood banks
7. EAN-13
EAN-13 is used world-wide for marking retail items . EAN-13 is used where the country code is required. This code is composed of 2 numbers for country code 10 numbers for data characters and one for checksum. The checksum calculation: Add the values of the digits in the even-numbered positions: 2, 4, 6, etc. Multiply this result by 3. Add the values of the digits in the odd-numbered positions: 1, 3, 5, etc. Sum the results of steps 2 and 3. The check character is the smallest number which, when added to the result in step 4, produces a multiple of 10.
8. Alpha-numeric barcodes Code 128:
Very capable code, excellent density, high reliability; in very wide use world-wide Code 39: General-purpose code in very wide use world-wide
9. 2-Dimensional barcodes PDF417:
Excellent for encoding large amounts of data DataMatrix: Can hold large amounts of data, especially suited for making very small codes Maxicode: Fixed length, used by United Parcel Service for automated package sorting
10. For more please refer our PPT. Thanks.
PowerPoint Presentation On Graphics Editor
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Graphics Editor Presentation Transcript:
1. COMPUTER GRAPHICSComputer graphics involves display,manipulation and storage of picture and data for proper visualiztion using a computer. It is a significant application of computers in every field of life.
2. APPLICATION OF GRAPHICS
1.Computer Aided Design Use interactive computer graphics for designing components of engineering fields. 2.Graphical User Interface It helps an user to interact with an application in an easier way. 3.Scientific Visualization and Business Plotting It also helpful in showing various scientific data and helps in analysing business data.
3. SYNOPSIS
The objective of this project is to develop a 3D-Graphics Editor that allows the user to draw and modify images. The minimum features included in the project are: Cursor movement Free Hand drawing Editing picture objects such as line, circle, box, arc, ellipse & spiral drawing Clipping Filling Geometric Transformations
4. TYPES OF TRANSFORMATION
Translation- process of changing the position of an object from one coordinate location to another. Rotation- process of rotating an object by an angle Q(theta) with respect to origin. Scaling- process of expanding or reducing the dimension or size of an object. Reflection- it generates the mirror image of an object. Shearing- it is used to modify the shapes of an object.
5. CLIPPING-
It is a process of identifying the object of the scene that are outside the clipping region which can be further removed or clipped from viewing window. Types of Clipping. Point Clipping Line Clipping Polygon Clipping Text Clipping Curve Clipping
6. INTRODUCTION
Problem Statement “Develop a suitable graphics package to implement the skills learnt in the theory and in lab.” In this project we have implemented the Graphics Editor to perform the basic graphics operations. Implementation is done using C language. Graphical editors can be classified as: Command driven Menu driven Icon driven Cont…
7. Command Driven Editor The earliest editors were of the above type. In a command driven editor all editing and creation operations like resize, draw circle etc were input from the keyboard. Menu Driven Editor A menu driven editor allows the user to choose from a set of operations that are grouped by logical connectivity in the form of menus. Icon Driven Editor In an icon driven editor (the current generation of editors), icons represent all the functions and clicking on them performs the desired action.
8. Hardware Requirements Keyboard Colour Monitor Mouse Software Requirements Windows Operating System MS Dos 6.0 and above Turbo C
9. The users of an editor can vary and hence his/her requirements can vary depending on the environment of the editor and its applications. The general requirements of a graphics editor are: Interactive Auto Formatting Multiple Input Sources Efficient Convenient
10. For more please refer our PPT. Thanks.
PowerPoint Presentation On Software Testing
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Software Testing Presentation Transcript:
1. What is Testing??“Testing is the process of executing a program with the intent of finding errors”. It is a process of evaluating a system by manual or automatic means and verifying that it satisfies specified requirements or identify differences between expected and actual results.
2. Why Software Testing
It is important as it cause impact on operational performance and reliability if not done properly. Effective software testing helps to deliver quality software products that satisfy user’s requirements, Needs and expectations. If done Poorly, it leads to high maintenance cost and user dissatisfaction
3. Why Software Testing
It is important as it cause impact on operational performance and reliability if not done properly. Effective software testing helps to deliver quality software products that satisfy user’s requirements, Needs and expectations. If done Poorly, it leads to high maintenance cost and user dissatisfaction
4. Verification & Validation (V&V)
Verification – Are we developing a product right? Validation – Are we developing the right product ? It is the difference between 'What and How' Two types of V &V is there Static V & V Dynamic V & V
5. Principles of Software Testing
Testing is the process of executing a program with an intent of finding error and it should be planned long before testing begins. Test cases must be written for invalid and unexpected, as well as for valid and expected input conditions. A good test case is one that has high probability of detecting an error.
6. Principles of Software Testing….
All the test cases should be traceable to the customer requirements Testing should be planned long before testing begins Testing should begin 'in small' and process towards testing 'in large' To be most effective, testing should be conducted by independent third parties.
7. Purpose and Benefit Testing
The main objective of testing is to help clearly describe system behavior and to find defects in Requirements, design, documentation, and code as early as possible. The test process should be such that it should reduce the number of defects of the software product to be delivered to the customer. All tests should be traceable to customer requirements.
8. Programmers don’t like to test WHY?
Testing is considered Low Tech Low excitement Suitable for people with lots of time on their hands Many programmers believe that once they have gone through the formality of running a few perfunctory tests against it, their code works When building an electronic circuit, a hardware designer goes over it carefully in several times before ever applying power For programmers, if a program happens not to crash and even generates output that looks like it might be correct, the programmer is tempted to believe that the program works
9. Objective of Software Tester
The goal of a Tester is to find defects. The goals of a Tester is to find Defects and find them as early as possible. The goal of a Tester is to find defects and find them as early as possible and make sure they get fixed.
10. For more please refer our PPT. Thanks.
PowerPoint Presentation On Smart Cards
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Related Project Report:
Smart Card Report
PowerPoint Presentation On Holographic Versatile Disc
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Holographic Versatile Disc Presentation Transcript:
1. Need Of HVDMultimedia - a single minute of compressed video takes up to 12 Mbytes Data Warehouses - large corporations’ warehouses now taking more than 2 Tbytes World Wide Web - one vendor’s high-end Web server packs 128 Gbytes of disk In Hospitals Multi slice CAT scan: 500MB Cardiac video: 3GB
2. What is HVD ?
Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD) is an optical disc technology which would hold up to 3.9 terabytes (TB) of information . An HVD is an advanced optical disk that’s presently in the development stage. Polaroid scientist J van Heerden was the first to come up with the idea for holographic three-dimensional storage in 1960. Holographic memory systems have been around for decades. They offer far more storage capacity than CDs and DVDs -- even "next-generation" DVDs like Blu-ray -- and their transfer rates are far very less.
3. Basics of Holographic Disk
The first step in understanding holographic disk is to understand what "holographic" means. Holography is a method of recording patterns of light to produce a three-dimensional object. The recorded patterns of light are called a hologram.
4. A Holographic Disk can:
Store information throughout the whole volume of the medium instead of just the surface as with other storage technologies. Uses fewer or no moving parts at all, thus allowing greater data processing speeds. Hold more information than 100 compact disks of the same diameter Can read 64,000 bits at one time, compared to just one or two bits with magnetic storage. Provides unique robustness and error insensitivity
5. Advantages
1) Large Data Density/ Capacity Uses optics instead of read-write heads, and uses whole volume of medium instead of just surface as with conventional devices. 2) Better Reliability Uses less moving parts (or no moving parts) 3) High Transfer Rates & Short Access Times Parallel access instead of bit-by-bit access 4) Fault And Damage Tolerance Which Are Not Available Simultaneously With Any Other Storage Technology.
6. HVD Structure
Green writing/reading laser (532 nm) Red positioning/addressing laser (650 nm) Hologram (data) Polycarbon layer Photopolymeric layer (data-containing layer) Distance layers Dichotic layer (reflecting green light) Aluminium reflective layer (reflecting red light)
7. Working Principle HVD
uses a technology called 'collinear holography,' in which two laser rays, one is blue-green and another is red, are collimated into a single beam.. The blue-green laser reads data encoded as laser interference fringes from a holographic layer near the top of the disc while the red laser is used as the reference beam and to read servo information from a regular CD-style aluminium layer near the bottom. Servo information is used to monitor the position of the read head over the disc, similar to the head, track, and sector information on a conventional hard disk drive.
8. HVD Write System
A simplified HVD system consists of the following main components: Blue or green laser (532-nm wavelength in the test system) Beam splitter/merger Mirrors Spatial light modulator (SLM) CMOS sensor Polymer recording medium
9. When the blue-green argon laser is fired, a beam splitter creates two beams. One beam, called the object or signal beam, will go straight, bounce off one mirror and travel through a spatial-light modulator (SLM). An SLM is a liquid crystal display (LCD) that shows pages of raw binary data as clear and dark boxes. The information from the page of binary code is carried by the signal beam around to the light-sensitive lithium-niobate crystal. Some systems use a photopolymer in place of the crystal. A second beam, called the reference beam, shoots out the side of the beam splitter and takes a separate path to the crystal. When the two beams meet, the interference pattern that is created stores the data carried by the signal beam in a specific area in the crystal -- the data is stored as a hologram.
10. For more please refer our PPT. Thanks.
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