PPT On Word Skills

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Word Skills Presentation Transcript:
1.Word Skills

3.Rundown
    Word Skills
Vocabulary Building
Synonyms
Antonyms
Dictionary skills
Thesaurus 
 Practicing Exercises

4.Word Skills
Languages generally have an expression that means something like English term “word”
Word skills are very important part of Language.

5.Vocabulary Building

6.Advantages
You will become smart and prominent.
You will have more confidence in speaking.
You will have improved communication skills.
You will understand your reading material better.
You will be able to write more effectively.
You will be more efficient in problem-solving.

7. Read, Read and Read !
    The more reading you do, the faster you will build your vocabulary, Try reading on different topics, with different reading materials.
Repeat words several times !
    To make word repetition a useful tool for building                     
     vocabulary, it is helpful to over-practice.

 8. Look at words with the mind of a child !
    Discover how children learn more words in one week than the typical adult can learn in one year. You must be able to approach word-learning with the open mind of a child.
 Make it personal !
    Making words personally meaningful to you will make them stand out, and you will be able to retain them better. There are several ways to add personal meaning to words, and all of them effectively contribute to building your vocabulary.

9.Use your imagination !
        You may try creating images to correspond with the word you are learning. If you are learning a word, you can try looking it up in a traditional or online dictionary, and you may find an illustration of the word.
Practice using elaboration !
       Elaboration involves expounding on the meaning of a word to make it more memorable to you personally.

10.   Strengthening the learning of vocabulary- making use of Word Games.

11.“If you use Ultimate Vocabulary for 10 minutes a day for just one month, you will build a powerful vocabulary that will boost your success to new levels”

12.Synonyms and Antonyms 

13.‘Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings.’

14.There are actually four types of antonyms:
Gradable antonyms are opposites at either end of the spectrum, as in slow and fast.
Complementary antonyms are absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.
Relational antonyms are opposites where one word describes a relationship between two objects, and the other word describes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed.    For example, parent and child, teacher and student, or buy and sell.
Auto-antonyms are the same two words that mean the opposite.    For example, fast (moving quickly) and fast (stuck in place).

15.Dictionary Vs Thesaurus
A dictionary is a book containing the individual words of a language (usually organized alphabetically). The purpose of the dictionary is to set forth the meanings, pronunciation and signification of those words.
The thesaurus, on the other hand, is a specific dictionary that presents synonyms (words that have similar meaning) for every word listed.
The purpose of the thesaurus is to help the writer to find more suitable words and avoid the repetition of terms.

PPT On System Programming

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System Programming Presentation Transcript:

1.What is System Programming?
Application Programming
System Programming

2.Three Layer Model

3.Means of Input Output
Programmed input output
Interrupt driven
Direct Memory Access

4.Controllers
I/O control signals
Buffering
Error Correction and Detection

5.DMA Controller

6.Interrupt Controller
Handles the Priorities among hardware interrupt

7.    Programmable Peripheral          Interface(PPI)

8.Interval Timer

9.Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter

10.File Management
Basics
Disk Structure
Disk Formatting
Sector and Clusters

11.Data Structure
Fat12, Fat16, Fat32
Drive Parameter Block (DPB)
Directory Structure

12.Accessing and Manipulating file and Directory Structure

13.Memory Management
Real Mode
Protected Mode

14.Real Mode
Memory Control Block (MCB)
Program segment prefix (PSP)

15.Transversal through processes memory
Determining
Allocated memory
Free memory 

PPT On Vocabulary Skills

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Vocabulary Skills Presentation Transcript:
1.Vocabulary Skills

2. Definition of Vocabulary Skills
A vocab is defined as
“All the word known and used by a particular person”.
Vocab building is a key reading, writing, to
verbal expression and in many ways, vocabulary
is key to building analytical and critical thinking.

3.Types of Vocabulary                            

4.Reading Vocabulary:
    A person's reading vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when reading. This is the largest type of vocabulary simply because it includes the other three.

5.Listening vocabulary:
    A person's listening vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when listening to speech. This vocabulary is aided in size by context and tone of voice.

6.Writing vocabulary:
    A person's writing vocabulary is all the words he or she can employ in writing. Contrary to the previous two vocabulary types, the writing vocabulary is stimulated by its user.

7.Speaking vocabulary:
    A person's speaking vocabulary is all the words he or she can use in speech. Due to the spontaneous nature of the speaking vocabulary, words are often misused. This misuse – though slight and unintentional – may be compensated by facial expressions, tone of voice, or hand gestures.

8. How to Improve Vocabulary…?
1-By Reading Newspapers, Magazines, Novels, etc
2-By consulting dictionary 
 3-Associoating with people who have a good spoken vocabulary and writing   vocabulary

9. Synonyms:
1:- Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings.
2:- Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions)

10. Antonyms (opposite):
    An Antonym is a word that means the opposite
    of another.
   E.G ‘fat’ is an antonym of ‘thin’
   ‘Big’ is an antonym of ‘small’

11.USE OF THEASURUS:
    To find the word you need to express yourself more effectively and more interestingly
To avoid repeating the same words:
    To find the word that suits the genre(type of writing e.g. : a letter), purpose, intended audience and context of what you are writing
Dictionary skills:
    It includes how to make best use of dictionary

12. Definition:
  “A reference book containing an alphabetical
    list of words with information about them”

13. Why Use A Dictionary???
    Dictionaries can be used to check spelling, to
   learn new words, to find or double-check the
   meaning of a word you encounter, or to find
   the right word to use. How to best use a
   dictionary depends on what you are doing with
    words.

PPT On Software Development

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Software Development Presentation Transcript:
1.Introduction to Software Development

2.Objectives:
Software Development
A Software Engineering Framework
Software Development Loop
Software Engineering Phases
Summary

3.Software Development
The activities involved in software development can broadly be divided into two major categories.
Construction
Management

4.Construction
The construction activities are those that directly related to the development of software, e.g. gathering the requirements of the software, develop design, implement and test the software etc. Some of the major construction activities are listed below:
Requirement Gathering
Design Development
Coding
Testing

5.Management
Management activities are kind of umbrella activities that are used to smoothly and successfully perform the construction activities e.g. project planning, software quality assurance etc. Some of the major management activities are listed below:
Project Planning and Management
Configuration Management
Software Quality Assurance
Installation and Training

6.Development Activities
The figure shows that construction is surrounded by management activities. That is, all construction activities are governed by certain processes and rules. These processes and rules are related to the management of the construction activities and not the construction itself.

7.A Software Engineering Framework
The major components of this framework are as described below:
Quality Focus
The framework is based on the organizational commitment to quality. The quality focus demands that processes be defined for rational and timely development of software. And quality should be emphasized while executing these processes.

8.A Software Engineering Framework-II
Processes
The processes define the tasks to be performed and the order in which they are to be performed. Every task has some deliverables and every deliverable should be delivered at a particular milestone.
Methods
Methods provide the techniques how-to carryout these tasks. There could be more than one technique to perform a task and different techniques could be used in different situations.
 Tools
Tools provide automated or semi-automated support for software processes, methods, and quality control.

9.Software Development Loop
The major stages of software development loop are described below:
Problem Definition
In this stage we determine what is the problem against which we are going to develop software. Here we try to completely understand the issues and requirements of the software system to build.
 Technical Development
In this stage we try to find the solution of the problem on technical grounds and base our actual implementation on it. This is the stage where a new system is actually developed that solves the problem defined in the first stage.

10.Software Development Loop-II
Solution Integration
If there are already developed system(s) available with which our new system has to interact then those systems should also be the part of our new system. All those existing system(s) integrate with our new system at this stage.
Status Quo (way things are now)
After going through the previous three stages successfully, when we actually deployed the new system at the user site then that situation is called status quo. But once we get new requirements then we need to change the status quo.

11.Software development activities could be performed in a cyclic and that cycle is called software development loop which is shown in figure.
After getting new requirements we perform all the steps in the software development loop again. The software developed through this process has the property that this could be evolved and integrated easily with the existing systems.

12.Software Engineering Phases
Four basic phases of software development:
Vision: Here we determine why are we doing this thing and what are our business objectives that we want to achieve.
Definition: Here we actually realize or automate the vision developed in first phase. Here we determine what are the activities and things involved.
Development: Here we determine, what should be the design of the system, how will it be implemented and how to test it.
Maintenance: This is very important phase of software development. Here we control the change in system, whether that change is in the form of enhancements or defect removal.

13.Importance of Maintenance
Correction, adaptation, enhancement
For most large, long lifetime software systems, maintenance cost normally exceeds development cost by factors ranging from 2 to 3.
Boehm (1975) quotes a extreme case where the development cost of an aircraft system was $30 per line of code but the maintenance cost was $4000 per instruction.

14.Summary
Software development is a multi-activity process. It is not simply coding
Software construction and management
Software Engineering Framework
Software development loop
Software engineering phases
Importance of Maintenance 

PPT On Fourier Series Analysis And It's Properties

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Fourier Series Analysis And It's Properties Presentation Transcript:
1.Signals and Systems (Lab)

2.Fourier series Analysis an its Properties.

3.In Previous Lab…
What is meant by Impulse Response
How to Compute Continuous-Time Convolutions
Analytical way of Computing the convolution
Direct Method
Computation of Discrete-Time Convolution
How to Preserve Indices Information using “conv”
How to construct input or impulse response of a System using De-convolution

4.Introduction to Fourier Series
Complex Exponential Fourier Series Representation
Trigonometric Fourier series Representation
Properties of Fourier series
Linearity
Time Shifting
Time Reversal
Signal Multiplication
Parseval’s Identity
Summary

5.Complex Exponential Fourier Series Representation

6.    Using the complex exponential Fourier series representation, calculate the Fourier Series Coefficients of the periodic signal shown below. Approximate by using 5, 11 and 61 terms of FS coefficients, and compare the results.
    x(t) in one period is given by :

7.Solution:
t1=0:.01:1;
t2=1.01:.01:2;
x1=ones(size(t1));
x2=zeros(size(t2));
x=[x1 x2];

xp=repmat(x,1,5);
t=linspace(0,10,length(xp));
plot(t,xp)
ylim([-0.2 1.2])

8.Approximation with 5 terms
syms t
x= heaviside(t)- 2*heaviside (t-1);

k=-2:2;
t0 =0;  T=2;
w=2*pi/T;

a=(1/T)*int(x*exp(-j*k*w*t),t,t0,t0+T)

xx=sum(a.*exp(j*k*w*t))

ezplot(xx,[0 10])
title('approximation with 5 terms')

9.Approximation with 11 terms

k=-5:5;

a=(1/T)*int(x*exp(-j*k*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);

xx=sum(a.*exp(j*k*w*t));

ezplot(xx,[0 10])

title('approximation with 11 terms')

10.
k=-30:30;

a=(1/T)*int(x*exp(-j*k*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);

xx=sum(a.*exp(j*k*w*t));

ezplot(xx,[0 10])

title('approximation with 61 terms')

11.Trigonometric Fourier series Representation

12.    Using the Trigonometric Fourier series representation, calculate the Fourier Series Coefficients of the periodic signal shown below. Approximate by using 3, 6 and 41 terms of FS coefficients, and compare the results.
    x(t) in one period is given by :

13.
syms t
x= heaviside(t)- 2*heaviside (t-1);

a0=(1/T)*int(x,t0,t0+T);
n=1:2;

b=(2/T)*int(x*cos(n*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);
c=(2/T)*int(x*sin(n*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);

xx=a0+sum(b.*cos(n*w*t))+sum(c.*sin(n*w*t));

ezplot(xx,[0 10])
title('approximation with 3 terms')

14.
n=1:5;
b=(2/T)*int(x*cos(n*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);
c=(2/T)*int(x*sin(n*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);
xx=a0+sum(b.*cos(n*w*t))+sum(c.*sin(n*w*t});
ezplot(xx,[0 10])
title(' approximation with 6 terms')
n=1:40;
subplot(3,1,3)
b=(2/T)*int(x*cos(n*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);
c=(2/T)*int(x*sin(n*w*t),t,t0,t0+T);
xx=a0+sum(b.*cos(n*w*t))+sum(c.*sin(n*w*t));
ezplot(xx,[0 10])
title('approximation with 41 terms')

15. To verify the linearity property , we consider the periodic signals  x(t)=cos(t) and y(t)=sin(2t) and the scalars  and z1=2+3i and z2=2. 

PPT On CT Impulse

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CT Impulse Presentation Transcript:
1.EEE223 Signals & Systems

2.Outline
CT Impulse (continued)
Systems
With and without memory
Invertible and inverse systems
Causal systems
Stable systems
Time invariant systems
Linear systems

3.CT unit impulse
Sampling property:

4.CT unit impulse
Derivatives of CT signals:

5.Systems
Transform input signals to output signals
OR
Input signals cause systems to respond in certain ways resulting in other output signals

6.Interconnections of systems
Series or cascade
Parallel
Series – parallel
Feedback interconnections

7.Properties: Memory
Without memory: Output ONLY depends on input at the same time, e.g.
                    y(t) = 2x(t) + x2(t)
With memory:

8.Properties: Memory
Simple delay: (memory)
y[n] = x[n-2]
Accumulator
What if output depends on FUTURE values?

9.Properties: Invertibility
Distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs (observe output, deduce input)
Then inverse systems possible
Encoding – decoding
Modulation – demodulation

10.Properties: Invertibility

11.Properties: Causality
 Output depends only on present and past values of input
y[n] = x[n] + x[n-1]     Causal
y(t) = x(t+1)        Non-causal
Memoryless systems are causal
What about y[n] = x[-n] ?

12.Properties: Stability
 Bounded input leads to bounded output
y[n] = 1.05 y[n-1] + x[n] ????
y[n] = nx[n] ???
tx(t)??  ex(t) ??
Find counterexamples for instability

13.Properties: Time Invariance
Time shift in input leads to identical time shift in the output
                x[n-no] ->  y[n-no]
Or
                x(t-to) -> y(t-to)

14.Properties: Time Invariance
                y[n] = nx[n]??
                y(t) = Cos(x(t))

15.Obeys principle of superposition
Additivity
    x1 + x2 -> y1 + y2
Homogeneity
    ax -> ay

PPT On Sums and Products of Signals

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Sums and Products of Signals Presentation Transcript:
1.EEE223 Signals & Systems

2.Outline
Sums and products of signals
CT exponential & Sinusoidal signals
DT exponential & Sinusoidal signals
Unit impulse and unit steps signals

3.Sums & Products of Signals
Point by point addition / multiplication

Examples

4.CT Complex exponential
Ceat
In general, C and a are complex
If C, a are real => real exponential
a > 0 growing exp
a < 0 decaying exp
a = 0 constant

5.Ceat
If a is pure imaginary, then
eat = ej?t = ej?(t +T)
Periodic with period T = 2 p/ | ? |

6.CT Sinusoidal signals
x(t) = A cos ( ?ot + f )
?o  = 2pfo
?o = radians per second
f  = radians
fo  = cycles per second (Hertz)
Euler’s relation

7.CT exponential & Sinusoidal signals
x(t) = Ceat
with C = |C| ej?
and a = r + j ?
x(t) = |C| ertej(?t+?)
x(t) = |C| ertej(?t+?)
= sinusoid * exponential envelope

8.DT exponential
x[n] = Can
In general, C and a are complex
If C, a are real => real exponential
|a| > 1 growing exp
|a| < 1 decaying exp
a < 0 oscillatory behaviour

9.DT Complex exponential
x[n] = Can
Or
x[n] = Ceßn
If ß is pure imaginary, then
x[n] = Cej?n
(Euler’s relation)

10.DT Issues:
Cej?n = Cej(?+2p)n
Frequency ? = ? + 2p         SAME!!!!!!
Periodicity:
x[n+N] = x[n]
Is it true for complex exponentials?

PPT On Even And Odd Signals

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Even And Odd Signals Presentation Transcript:
1.EEE223 Signals & Systems

2.Outline
Transformations of the independent variable
Even and odd signals
Periodic signals
More signal transformations

3.Transformations of the independent variable
Important to consider signals related by transformations of the independent variable, e.g.
x(-t), x(2t), x(t/2)
x[-n]
x(t-to), x[n-no]

4.Transformations of the independent variable

How about
x(2t) ?
x(t/2) ?
x(-2t + 1) ?

5.Even and Odd Signals
Even signals:
x(t) = x(-t)

Odd signals:
x(t) = -x(-t)

6.Every signal can be decomposed into even and odd parts:
xe(t) = ½ { x(t) + x(-t) }

xo(t) = ½ { x(t) - x(-t) }

xe(t) + xo(t) = ????

7.Similarly for discrete-time signals:
Even signals:
x[n] = x[-n]

Odd signals:
x[n] = -x[-n]

8.Every discrete-time signal can be decomposed into even and odd parts:
xe[n] = ½ { x[n] + x[-n] }

xo[n] = ½ { x[n] - x[-n] }
and
x[n] = xe[n] + xo[n]

9.Periodic signals
            x(t) = x(t + T) for all t and T>0
is called a periodic signal with period T
x(t) = x(t + mT) for any integer m
x(t) is also periodic with period 2T, 3T …
Smallest +ve value of T is called the Fundamental Period
Special case: x(t) = Constant

10.            x[n] = x[n + N] for all n and N>0
is called a periodic signal with period T
x[n] = x[n + mN] for any integer m
x[n] is also periodic with period 2N, 3N …
Smallest +ve value of N is called the Fundamental Period
Special case: x[n] = Constant

11.More Transformations
ax(t)
ax[n]
x(t)h(t)
x[n]h[n]
ax(t-1)h(-t+2)

PPT On Signals

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Signals Presentation Transcript:
1.EEE223 Signals & Systems

2.Housekeeping
Text:
Signals & Systems
Oppenheim, Willsky & Nawab, 2nd Ed.
Reference:
Linear Systems & Signals
B.P. Lathi, 2nd Ed.

3.Grading Policy
Assignments    (10)            25%
Session Exams    (2)            25%
Final Exam                    50%
Assignments are critical to understanding the course

4.Outline
Introduction to signals – continuous & discrete
Representation of signals
Transformations of the independent variable
Even and odd signals
Periodic signals
More signal transformations

5.Signals
Signals carry information – without this they are noise!
Sound waves, air temperature, blood pressure, ECG waves etc.
Daily stock market rates, daily class attendance, number of cars passing a check-post every hour etc.

6.Representation
We shall use the following conventions:
Functions of a continuous independent variable (typically time) will be written as x(t)
Functions of a discrete independent variable (also referred to as time) will be written as x[n]
Note: n ONLY takes integer values

7.Transformations of the independent variable
Important to consider signals related by transformations of the independent variable, e.g.
x(-t), x(2t), x(t/2)
x[-n]
x(t-to), x[n-no]

8.Even and Odd Signals
Every signal can be decomposed into even and odd parts:

9.Even and Odd Signals
Similarly for discrete-time signals:
Even signals:
x[n] = x[-n]

Odd signals:
x[n] = -x[-n]

10.Every discrete-time signal can be decomposed into even and odd parts:
xe[n] = ½ { x[n] + x[-n] }
xo[n] = ½ { x[n] - x[-n] }
and
x[n] = xe[n] + xo[n]

11.Periodic signals
            x(t) = x(t + T) for all t and T>0
is called a periodic signal with period T
x(t) = x(t + mT) for any integer m
x(t) is also periodic with period 2T, 3T …
Smallest +ve value of T is called the Fundamental Period

12.Periodic signals
            x[n] = x[n + N] for all n and N>0
is called a periodic signal with period T
x[n] = x[n + mN] for any integer m
x[n] is also periodic with period 2N, 3N …
Smallest +ve value of N is called the Fundamental Period

13.More Transformations
ax(t)
ax[n]
x(t)h(t)
x[n]h[n]
ax(t-1)h(-t+2)

PPT On Signals And Systems

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Signals And Systems Presentation Transcript:
1.EEE223 Signals & Systems

2.Outline
DT unit sample and unit step sequences
CT unit impulse and unit step functions

3.DT Unit sample (impulse)
d[n] = 1 for n = 0
                0 for n ? 0

Sampling property of unit sample:
    x[n] d[n]  = x[0] d[n]
    x[n] d[n-k] = x[k] d[n-k]

4.What happens when a signal is multiplied with a unit step sequence?

5.Relationship between unit sample and unit step

6.CT Unit Step
What happens when we multiply a signal with a unit step?
    What about multiplying with a box?

7.A signal with infinite height, zero width, unit area
The limiting form of an infinite number of functions
Derivative of unit step???
Definition as an integral??

8.Scaled impulses
Sampling property:
Unit step as integral of unit impulse

PPT On SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

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SENTENCE FRAGMENTS Presentation Transcript:
1.GROUP MEMBERS
MUHAMMAD WAQAS
SEHAR EHSAN
MUHAMMAD FOUQAN
FAIZA ARIF
MUHAMMAD TAYYAB

2.SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

3.Sentences
 A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
 A sentence stands alone and makes sense.
 A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with and end mark.

4.Sentences
Examples
The man runs.
He goes to school.
 I am ready to do my school work.
 I am doing my studies.

5.Fragments
 A fragment is a part of something.
 In grammar, a fragment is a part of a sentence.
 A fragment does not stand alone, and it does not make sense.

6.Examples
 …a blue purse…
 Because the car was in parking.(what did he do?)
 I ready to do my school work.
 Having enjoyed spring break.

7.Difference b/w Sentence & Fragment
Sentences
Group of words, express complete thought.
Stands alone.
Alone make complete sense.
Has its own subject and predicate
Fragments
Are incomplete thought.
Does not stand alone.
Alone can not make complete thought.
May be missing subject or predicate and may not have both of these.
Part of sentence.

8.Types of Fragments
The most common types of fragments are
 Dependant-word fragments
 -Ing fragments
 To fragments
 Added-detail fragments
 Missing-subject fragments

9.Dependent-Word Fragments
Some word groups that begin with a dependent word are fragments. Here is a list of common dependent words…
After, although, though, as, because, before, even though, how, if, even if, in order that, since, that, so that, unless, until, what, whatever, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, which, whichever, while, who, whoever, whose.
Whenever you start a sentence with a dependent word, be careful a fragment does not result.

10.Ex. After I learned the price of new cars. I decided to keep my old pickup.
A dependent statement cannot stand alone. It depends on another statement to complete the thought.
Ex. After I learned the price of new cars, I decided to keep my old pickup.
Dependent statements by themselves are fragments. Attach the dependent sentence to the sentence to come before or after to correct this.

11.-Ing Fragments
When an –ing word is at or near the start of a word group, a fragment may result.
Example
Ex. I spent two hours on the phone. Trying to find a shop.
To correct, attach the –ing fragment to the sentence that comes before or after (whichever makes sense).
Ex. I spent two hours on the phone, trying to find a shop.
Or, add a subject & change the –ing verb to the correct form.
Or, change the verb to the correct form.

12.To Fragments
When to appears at or near the beginning of a word group, a fragment may result.
Example
Ex. I plan on working overtime. To finish the job.
To correct, add the fragment to the preceding sentence.
Ex. I plan on working overtime to finish the job.

13.Missing-Subject Fragments
Sometimes a word group is missing a subject because the writer thinks the subject from one sentence will apply to the next.
Example
Ex. The car swerved. But missed the telephone pole.
To correct, attach the fragment to the preceding sentence.
Or, add a subject (which can be a pronoun standing for the subject in the preceding sentence).
Ex. The car swerved. It missed the telephone pole.

14.Added-Detail Fragment
Added-detail fragments often lack a subject and a verb.
They often begin with one of the following words: also, especially, except, for example, including, such as.
Example
Ex. I love to eat Italian food. Especially spaghetti and lasagna.
To correct, attach the fragment to the preceding sentence.
Or, add a subject and verb to the fragment.
Or, change words as necessary to combine the fragment to a sentence.

15.How to avoid sentence fragments?
Rules/Instructions
When you start a sentence with because, put a comma-not a period-in the middle.
Connect added through phrases to the main clause with a comma-never a period!
Connect ING phrases to the main clause with a comma never a period!

PPT On Culture of Pakistan

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Culture of Pakistan Presentation Transcript:
1.Culture of pakistan

2.Definition:-
Culture is defined as the ways of living of different people at the same time in different parts of the same region.

3.Culture of Pakistan
These Pakistani cultures have been greatly influenced by many of the surrounding countries' cultures, such as the Turkic peoples, Persian, Afghan, and Indians of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East.

4.Culture refers to the following Ways of Life, including but not limited to:
Language : the oldest human institution and the most sophisticated medium of expression.
Arts & Sciences : the most advanced and refined forms of human expression.
Thought : the ways in which people perceive, interpret, and understand the world around them.

5.Spirituality : the value system transmitted through generations for the inner well-being of human beings, expressed through language and actions.
Social activity : the shared pursuits within a cultural community, demonstrated in a variety of festivities and life-celebrating events.
Interaction : the social aspects of human contact, including the give-and-take of socialization, negotiation, protocol, and conventions.
All of the above collectively define the meaning of Culture.

 6. Pakistani literature :
       The common and shared tradition of Urdu literature and English literature of South Asia was inherited by the new state, Pakistan in 1947.
Poetry:
       Poetry is a highly respected art and profession in Pakistan. The Urdu language has a rich tradition of poetry and includes the famous poets Dr Allama Iqbal national poet, Mirza Ghalib, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Ahmad Faraz, Jazib Qureshi and Ahmad Nadeem Qasimi. Apart from Urdu poetry, Pakistani poetry also has blends of other regional languages. Balochi, Sindhi, Punjabi, Seraiki, and Pashto poetry.

7.Performing  arts:
   1) Music    2) Dance    3) Drama and theatre.

Visual arts:
      1) Painting      2) Architecture

Recreation and Sports:
    1) Hockey     2) Squash   3) Cricket  
      4) Football   5)  Boxing    6) Swimming

Dress:
The national dress of Pakistan is Shalwar Qameez for both men and women. It consists of a long, loose fitting tunic with very baggy trousers. The dress is believed to be an amalgamation of the dresses worn by the ancient Persians, and Mughal Empire who have left their impression on the people and culture of Pakistan.

8.Media:
   1) Television    2) Radio   3) Cinema   4) Internet

FESTIVALS:

       1) Ramadan                     2) Eid celebrations
        3) Milad Un Nabi           4) Muharam (ASHURA)
        5) Jashne Baharan         6) Independence day
                                             7) Defence day

9. DO WE HAVE A PAKISTANI CULTURE?????? 

PPT On Requirement Engineering

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Requirement Engineering Presentation Transcript:

1.Requirement Engineering
Objectives:
Requirement Engineering Definitions
Importance of Requirements
Role of Requirements
Some Risks from Inadequate Requirement
 Process
Levels of Software Requirements
Stakeholders

2.Requirement Engineering
Software development life cycle divided into four phases namely vision, definition, development, and maintenance.
Each one of these stages has a different focus of activity.

During the vision phases, the focus is on why do we want to have this system.
During definition phase the focus shifts from why to what needs to be built to fulfill the previously outlined vision.
During development the definition is realized into design and implementation of the system.
Finally during maintenance all the changes and enhancements to keep the system up and running and adapt to the new environment and needs are carried out.

3.Requirement Engineering-I
Requirement engineering mainly deals with the definition phase of the system.
Requirement engineering is the name of the process when the system services and constraints are established.
It is the starting point of the development process with the focus of activity on what and not how.

4.Software Requirement Definitions
Jones defines software requirements as a statement of needs by a user that triggers the development of a program or system.

Alan Davis defines software requirements as a user need or necessary feature, function, or attribute of a system that can be sensed from a position external to that system.

According to Sommerville, requirements are a specification of what should be implemented. They are descriptions of how the system should behave, or of a system property or attribute. They may be a constraint on the development process of the system.

5.IEEE defines software requirements as:
1) A condition or capability needed by user to solve a problem or achieve an objective.
2) A condition or capability that must be met or possessed by a system or system component to satisfy a contract, standard, specification, or other formally imposed document.
3) A documented representation of a condition or capability as in 1 or 2.

6.As can be seen, these definitions slightly differ from one another but essentially say the same thing:
A software requirement is a document that describes all the services provided by the system along with the constraints under which it must operate.

7.Importance of Requirements
The hardest single part of building a software system is deciding precisely what to build. No other part of the conceptual work is as difficult as establishing the detailed technical requirements, including all the interfaces to people, to machines, and to other software systems. No other part of the work so cripples the system if done wrong. No other part is more difficult to rectify later. Fred Brooks

8.Many of the problems encountered in SW development are attributed to shortcoming in requirement gathering and documentation process.

It has been noted that 40-60% of all defects found in software projects can be traced back to poor requirements.

9.Importance of Requirements-I
This following graph shows the relative cost of fixing problem at the various stages of software development.
Boehm (1981) has reported that correcting an error after development costs 68 times more.
Other studies suggest that it can be as high as 200 times. Since cost is directly related with the success or failure of projects, it is clear from all this discussion that having sound requirements is the most critical success factor for any project

10.Role of Requirements
Software requirements document plays the central role in the entire software development process.
To start with, it is needed in the project planning and feasibility phase. In this phase, a good understanding of the requirements is needed to determine the time and resources required to build the software. As a result of this analysis, the scope of the system may be reduced before embarking upon the software development.

Once these requirements have been finalized, the construction process starts. During this phase the software engineer starts designing and coding the software. Once again, the requirement document serves as the base reference document for these activities.
It can be clearly seen that other activities such as user documentation and testing of the system would also need this document for their own deliverables.
 On the other hand, the project manager would need this document to monitor and track the progress of the project and if needed, change the project scope by modifying this document through the change control process

11.Some Risks from Inadequate Requirement Process
Insufficient user involvement leads to unacceptable products.
Creeping user requirements contribute to overruns and degrade product quality.
Ambiguous requirements lead to ill-spent time and rework.
Gold-plating by developers and users adds unnecessary features.

12.Some Risks from Inadequate Requirement Process-II
Smallest specifications lead to missing key requirements and hence result in an unacceptable product.

13. Levels of Software Requirements
Business Requirements
These are used to state the high-level business objective of the organization or customer requesting the system or product. They are used to document main system features and functionalities without going into their basic details. They are captured in a document describing the project vision and scope.

2) User Requirements
User requirements add further detail to the business requirements. They are called user requirements because they are written from a user’s perspective and the focus of user requirement describe tasks the user must be able to accomplish in order to fulfill the above stated business requirements. They are captured in the requirement definition document.

14.Levels of Software Requirements-I
3) Functional Requirements
The next level of detail comes in the form of what is called functional requirements. They bring-in the system’s view and define from the system’s perspective the software functionality the developers must build into the product to enable users to accomplish their tasks stated in the user requirements - thereby satisfying the business requirements.

4) Non-Functional Requirements
A software requirement as a document that describes all the services provided by the system along with the constraints under which it must operate. That is, the requirement document should not only describe the functionality needed and provided by the system, but it must also specify the constraints under which it must operate. Constraints are restrictions that are placed on the choices available to the developer for design and construction of the software product. These kinds of requirements are called Non-Functional Requirements. These are used to describe external system interfaces, design and implementation constraints, quality and performance attributes. These also include regulations, standards, and contracts to which the product must conform.

15.Word Processing System Example
Let us assume that we have a word-processing system that does not have a spell checker. In order to be able to sell the product, it is determined that it must have a spell checker.
Hence the business requirement could be stated as: user will be able to correct spelling errors in a document efficiently. Hence, the Spell checker will be included as a feature in the product. 
 

PPT On Prewriting Techniques

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Prewriting Techniques Presentation Transcript:
1.Pre-writing
Techniques

2.  What Is Pre-writing?
Prewriting is the first stage of the writing process and the point at which we discover and explore our initial ideas about a subject.

3.Pre-Writing TechniquesBrainstorming
Clustering
Free writing
Looping
Journalistic  Technique

4.Brainstorming
Brainstorming, also called listing, is a process of generating a lot of information within a short time by building on the association of previous terms you have mentioned.

5.Example
    Environment
    Problems
    Future
    Cars
    Alternative fuels

6.Clustering
Clustering is also called mind mapping or idea mapping. It is a strategy which allows you to explore the relationships between ideas.
Put the subject in the center of a page. Circle or underline it.
As you think of other ideas, link the new ideas to the central circle with lines.
As you think of ideas that relate to the new ideas, add to those in the same way

7.  Result
The result will look like a web on your page. Locate clusters of interest to you, and use the terms you attached to the key ideas as departure points for your paper. Clustering is especially useful in determining the relationship between ideas. You will be able to distinguish how the ideas fit together, especially where there is an abundance of ideas. Clustering your ideas lets you see them visually in a different way, so that you can more readily understand possible directions your paper may take

8.Free writing
Free writing is a process of generating a lot of information by writing non-stop. It allows you to focus on a specific topic, but forces you to write so quickly that you are unable to edit any of your ideas.

9.Example
Freewrite on the assignment or general topic for several            5-10 minutes non-stop. Force yourself to continue writing even if nothing specific comes to mind. This free writing will include many ideas; at this point, generating ideas is what is important, not the grammar or the spelling.
After you've finished free writing, look back over what you have written and highlight the most prominent and interesting ideas; then you can begin all over again, with a tighter focus. You will narrow your topic and, in the process, you will generate several relevant points about the topic.

10. Looping
Looping is a free writing technique that allows you to increasingly focus your ideas in trying to discover a writing topic. You loop one 5-10 minute free writing after another, so you have a sequence of free writings, each more specific than the other.
The some rules that apply to free writing apply to looping:
write quickly,
Do not edit
Do not stop.

11.Freewrite on an assignment for 5-10 minutes. A variation on looping is to have a classmate circle ideas in your free writing that interests him or her. Then free write again for 5-10 minutes on one of the circled topics. You should end up with a more specific free writing about a particular topic. Loop your free writing again, circling another interesting topic, idea, phrase, or sentence. When you have finished four or five rounds of looping, you will begin to have specific information that indicates what you are thinking about a particular topic. You may even have the basis for a tentative thesis or an improved idea for an approach to your assignment when you have finished.

12.Journalistic Technique
As you may know, journalists have six important questions they need to answer about any story they report: who, what, when, where, why, and how. By answering these questions, journalists can be certain that they have provided the most important information about an event, issue, or problem to their readers.

13.   Suppose that your government professor has asked to write about the malaria problem in the whole world. Using the journalistic technique, you could begin working on the paper by asking yourself the following questions:
Who is involved in the malaria problem?
What is the main reason for spreading malaria?
When did malaria problem accused?
Where does the malaria patients affected?
Why this problem is so dangerous?
How might this problem be resolved?

14.Why Use these Techniques?
Though you have already used brainstorming, clustering, or any of a number of other prewriting techniques, the particle, wave, field and journalistic techniques are slightly more formal. Try these new ways of prewriting and compare them to the previous strategies you used.
The key to any prewriting is finding something that works for you and also finding a technique that is comprehensive enough. Jotting down a word or sentence or two for prewriting is usually not enough; the more ideas you can get on paper in the early stages of writing, the stronger your final paper will be

PPT On Hypertext Transfer Protocol

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Hypertext Transfer Protocol Presentation Transcript:

1.History :-
"Tim" Berners-Lee(born 8 June 1955) , a British computer scientist and the inventor of the World Wide Web.On 25 December 1990, with Robert Cailliau at the "European Organization for Nuclear Research ", he implemented the first successful communication between a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) client and server via Internet.

2.First Website:

3.Protocol:-
Protocol is a set of rules governing a converstion between people.
Client and Server carry on conversation by machine to machine.

4.HTTTP-Hypertext Transfer protocol
A set of rules governing conversation between Client and Server machine.

5.A set of rules governing conversation between Client and Server machine.

PPT On Power Distribution System

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Power Distribution System Presentation Transcript:
1.Basic Considerations

        &

Distribution System Layout

2.TOPICS TO BE COVERED:
Utility Load Classifications
Power Factor Correction
Utility Factor
Distribution System Layout
Line Losses
Voltage Levels

3.Power Distribution System
The portion of distribution system that connects the individual     
   customer to the source of bulk power.
 Electricity distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electricity to
  end users.

4.Utility Load Classifications
Loads are the reason for electrical power system.
The types of loads are:
Resistive     (e.g. Lighting and heating)
Inductive     (e.g. Motor Loads)
Capacitive     (e.g. Rectifier Bridges with capacitor filters)

5.Residential loads are predominantly lighting , heating and motors for appliances such as air conditioners , washing machines and refrigerators.
In numbers, residential loads are the largest group of electric utility customers , comprising up to 85%.
Commercial loads typically make up about 15% of an electric utility customers. (consist of office buildings, schools , shopping malls etc. )
Industrial Loads seldom make up to 5% of an electric utility customers but they make up to 25 to 30% of the kilowatt hours supplied. (These loads consist of large motors , three phase motors , control panels & production equipment).

6.Power Factor Correction
What is Power Factor?
Power Factor is the ratio of true power or watts to apparent power or volt-amps.

7.Importance of P.F
A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any electric utility company since if the power factor is less than one, they have to supply more current to the user for a given amount of power use.
In  doing so, they incur more line losses. They must also have larger capacity equipment in place than would be necessary  otherwise. As a result, an industrial facility will be charged a penalty if its power factor is much different from 1.
Ref: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/powfac.html#c2

8.Power Factor Correction
Most commercial and industrial loads are inductive in nature the kVAs drawn from the utility are larger than the kWs and the current lags the voltage as shown in Fig 3.1
Only the component of the current that is in phase with the voltage provides useful work. The out of phase component increases the total current that utility must supply.

8.The overall power factor of a customer`s internal electrical system is brought closer to one by adding capacitance across line at various points.
If the system is capacitive , inductance would be added across the line for power factor correction.
The cost of correcting power factor to one as opposed to the modest correction between 0.95 and 0.99 may be much higher and the return on investment for the optimal correction may be too small to justify.

9.Correction to a power factor of unity under one set of operating conditions may result in a leading power factor under differing load conditions. The leading power factor may result in excessive line voltage which is illustrated in fig . 3.7 on the next slide

10.Utility factor is a measure of how much of the total capacity of a utility is in use. If all of the power a utility can generate is being used the utility factor is 100%.
 The requirement for reserve power and the load diversity is illustrated in fig 1.2

11.
The reserve requirements are for both spinning reserve and stand-by reserve.
Spinning reserve refers to reserve power available from generators that are spinning but are not producing full rated output power.
The spinning reserve requirement is typically 10% of the anticipated or actual load.

12.A stand by reserve equal to the largest single unit in the system is required. The stand by reserve does not include the spinning curve.
    Fig 3.8 to be embedded.

13.Service Factor
Service factor refers to the amount of time a load can be fed by the system. A service factor of 100% means the system feeding a particular load , was never out of service.
Lightning storms , other weather events and scheduled maintenance cause service factor to decrease to less than 100%.

14.Distribution System Layout
The different types of distribution systems are:
Radial Sub Transmission & Distribution Layout.
Loop Arrangement.
Combination of Loop & Radial.

15. In this layout , distribution lines extend from the substation to the last load with service drops to customers along the way.
Major advantage is that radial layout are simpler and more economical to install than other types of layouts.
Disadvantage is that any problem usually leaves a number is customers out of service until the problem is resolved.
Figure 3.9 the radial layout distribution.

PPT On Paragraph Writing

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Paragraph Writing Presentation Transcript:
1.Paragraph Writing

2.Definition
It is a group of sentences that introduces, presents and develops one main idea about the topic.

3.The start of a paragraph is indicated by beginning on a new line. Sometimes the first line is indented.

4.At various times, the beginning of a paragraph has been indicated by the pilcrow:

5.The Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is a statement that generally introduces the topic and thus it is often referred to as: the opening statement

6.Supporting Details
These are sentences that support the topic sentence. They give information that reinforces the main idea stated in the topic sentence.

7.Concluding Sentence
This is the last sentence of a paragraph which reflects what the writer has talked about in the paragraph. It should echo the topic sentence in a way or another.

8.
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world.  First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

9.Types of Paragraph
There are at least seven types of paragraphs.
 Knowledge of the differences between them can facilitate composing well-structured essays.
 Most paragraphs will have several functions to fulfill at a time; it is important to know under what circumstances their functions can be conjoined.

10.Types of Paragraph
There are at least seven types of paragraphs.
 Knowledge of the differences between them can facilitate composing well-structured essays.
 Most paragraphs will have several functions to fulfill at a time; it is important to know under what circumstances their functions can be conjoined.

11.Types of Paragraph
The different types of paragraph are:
 Narration Paragraph
 Exposition Paragraph
 Definition Paragraph
 Classification Paragraph
 Description Paragraph
 Process Analysis Paragraph
 Persuasion Paragraph

12.Narration Paragraph
 Narration paragraphs are most distinctively used in fiction showing all necessary components of  action development: protagonist, setting, goal, obstacle, climax and resolution.
 Writing a narration paragraph requires, consequently, sequential order and chronology.
 If composed correctly, a paragraph features much more action than depiction.

13. This type of paragraph is created in order to clarify or explain a problem or a phenomenon.
 Writing exposition paragraphs requires strict focus on evidence and objective language.
 It can contain elements of comparison and contrast or cause and effect writing - both facilitate accurate exposition of its subject-matter.

14. Definition paragraphs are used in order to explain the meaning, origin and function of things.
 They are used both in academic writing and in fiction.
 To write a definition paragraph, writers should concentrate on the role of its subject in the context of the whole essay and list comparisons as well as examples accordingly.

15.Classification Paragraph
 This type of paragraph is used both in defining and comparing.
 Writers should classify the subject of the paragraph in a specific context providing comparisons to corresponding ideas.
 Classification can be performed on multiple levels – semantic (comparing different meanings of things), linguistic (using vocabulary to show contrast), and more.

PPT On Arithmetic Operators

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 Arithmetic Operators Presentation Transcript:
1.OBJECTIVES
In this Lecture you will learn:
To use arithmetic operators.
The precedence of arithmetic operators.
To write decision-making statements.
To use relational and equality operators.

2.Arithmetic
Arithmetic calculations used in most programs
Usage
* for multiplication
/ for division
% for remainder
+, -
Integer division truncates remainder
7 / 5 evaluates to 1
Remainder operator % returns the remainder
7 % 5 evaluates to 2

3.Operator precedence
Some arithmetic operators act before others (i.e., multiplication before addition)
Use parenthesis when needed

4.Precedence of arithmetic operators.

5.Good Programming Practice
Using parentheses for complex arithmetic expressions, even when the parentheses are not necessary, can make the arithmetic expressions easier to read.

6.Solve Out Following Expression ? Step by Step

7.Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators
Condition
Expression can be either true or false
if statement
Simple version in this section, more detail later
If a condition is true, then the body of the if statement executed
Conditions in if statements can be formed using equality or relational operators (next slide)

8.Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators
Line 6: begins class Comparison declaration
Line 12: declares Scanner variable input and assigns it a Scanner that inputs data from the standard input
Lines 14-15: declare int variables
Lines 17-18: prompt the user to enter the first integer and input the value
Lines 20-21: prompt the user to enter the second integer and input the value

9.if statement to test for equality using (==)
If variables equal (condition true)
Line 24 executes
If variables not equal, statement skipped
No semicolon at the end of line 23
Empty statement
No task is performed
Lines 26-27, 29-30, 32-33, 35-36 and 38-39
Compare number1 and number2 with the operators !=, <, >, <= and >=, respectively

10.Common Programming Error
Forgetting the left and/or right parentheses for the condition in an if statement is a syntax error—the parentheses are required.

11.Confusing the equality operator, ==, with the assignment operator, =, can cause a logic error or a syntax error. The equality operator should be read as “is equal to,” and the assignment operator should be read as “gets” or “gets the value of.” To avoid confusion, some people read the equality operator as “double equals” or “equals equals.”

12.It is a syntax error if the operators ==, !=, >= and <= contain spaces between their symbols, as in = =, ! =, > = and < =, respectively.

13.Indent an if statement’s body to make it stand out and to enhance program readability.

14.Place only one statement per line in a program. This format enhances program readability.

15.Placing a semicolon immediately after the right parenthesis of the condition in an if statement is normally a logic error.

PPT On Java Applications

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Java Applications Presentation Transcript:
1.Introduction to Java Applications

2.OBJECTIVES
In this Lecture you will learn:
Introduction to Java
Features of Java
Java code compilation steps  
Introduction to Java Tools
To write simple Java applications.

3.Introduction to Java
James Gosling-1995

4.Features of JAVA
Automatic Memory Management
Performance (Just In Time Compilation)- JIT
Garbage Collector – for example (CMS).
Very strong for OOP
Platform Independent (JVM) 
No -pointers, operator overloading, multiple inheritance

5.Java Code Compilation Steps

6.Introduction to Java Tools
Java development Kit (JDK 7)
Netbeans (7.0.1)
Installation instructions are available at
https://sites.google.com/a/ciitlahore.edu.pk/programmingconcepts/

7.Sample Program in Java

8.Comments
Comments start with: //
Comments ignored during program execution
Document and describe code
Provides code readability
Traditional comments: /* ... */
    /* This is a traditional    comment. It can be    split over many lines */

Another line of comments
Note: line numbers not part of program, added for reference

9.First Program in Java: Printing a Line of Text
Blank line
Makes program more readable
Blank lines, spaces, and tabs are white-space characters
Ignored by compiler
Begins class declaration for class Welcome1
Every Java program has at least one user-defined class
Keyword: words reserved for use by Java
class keyword followed by class name
Naming classes: capitalize every word
SampleClassName

10.Java identifier
Series of characters consisting of letters, digits,   underscores ( _ ) and dollar signs ( $ )
Does not begin with a digit, has no spaces
Examples: Welcome1, $value, _value, button7
7button is invalid
Java is case sensitive (capitalization matters)
a1 and A1 are different
In chapters 2 to 7, start each class with public class
Details of this covered later

11.
Saving files
File name must be class name with .java extension
Welcome1.java
Left brace {
Begins body of every class
Right brace ends declarations (line 13)

12.
Part of every Java application
Applications begin executing at main
Parentheses indicate main is a method (Ch. 3 and 6)
Java applications contain one or more methods
Exactly one method must be called main
Methods can perform tasks and return information
void means main returns no information
For now, mimic main's first line
Left brace begins body of method declaration
Ended by right brace } (line 11)

13.
Instructs computer to perform an action
Prints string of characters
String – series of characters inside double quotes
White-spaces in strings are not ignored by compiler
System.out
Standard output object
Print to command window (i.e., MS-DOS prompt)
Method System.out.println
Displays line of text
This line known as a statement
Statements must end with semicolon ;

14.
Ends method declaration
Ends class declaration
Can add comments to keep track of ending braces

15.Executing a program
Type java Welcome1
Launches JVM
JVM loads .class file for class Welcome1
.class extension omitted from command
JVM calls method main

PPT On Introduction to Computers, C++ and OOP

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Introduction to Computers, C++ and OOP Presentation Transcript:
1.Object Oriented Programming (OOP)   BTE-FA10

2.Introduction

3.TEXT Book
  Java How to Program          (  Dietel & Dietel )
Reference Book
Web Sites & Material:
 Prepare from Anywhere...!

4. Marks Distribution
  
   1st Sessional Marks           ? 10
   2nd Sessional Marks          ?  15
   Quizzes                             ?  10
   Projects                             ?  15
   Final Exam                       ?   50

5.Introduction to Computers, C++ and OOP

6.1 .1    Introduction
1.2      What Is a Computer?
1.3      Computer Organization
1.4      Early Operating Systems
1.5      Personal, Distributed and Client/Server      Computing
1.6     The Internet and the World Wide Web
1.7     Machine Languages, Assembly Languages      and High-Level Languages
1.8     History of C and C++
1.9    Object Oriented Programming with C++

7.Introduction
In early 1980s, C++ developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
C is a structured language while C++ is Object oriented
Object Oriented Programming (OOP) technique enable programmer to write quality code

8.What Is a Computer?
Computer
Performs computations and makes logical decisions
Millions or billions of times faster than human beings
Computer programs
Sets of instructions for which computer processes data
Hardware
Physical devices of computer system
Software
Programs that run on computers

9.Computer Organization
Six logical units of computer system
Input unit
Mouse, keyboard
Output unit
Printer, monitor, audio speakers
Memory unit
Retains input and processed information
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
Performs calculations
Central processing unit (CPU)
Supervises operation of other devices
Secondary storage unit
Hard drives, floppy drives

10.Early Operating Systems
Batch processing
One job (task) at a time
Operating systems
Developed to make computers more convenient to use
Made transitions between jobs easier
More throughput
Multiprogramming
“Simultaneous” jobs
Timesharing operating systems

11.Personal, Distributed and Client/Server Computing
Personal computing
Computers for personal use
Distributed computing
Networked computers
Computing performed among several computers
Client/server computing
Servers offer common store of programs and data
Clients access programs and data from server

12.The Internet and the World  Wide Web
Internet
Developed more than four decades ago with DOD funding
Originally for connecting few main computer systems
Now accessible by over a billion computers
World Wide Web (WWW)
Allows for locating/viewing multimedia-based documents

13.Machine Languages, Assembly Languages and High-Level Languages
Machine language
“Natural language” of computer component
Machine dependent
Assembly language
English-like abbreviations represent computer operations
Translator programs (assemblers) convert to machine language
High-level language
Allows for writing more “English-like” instructions
Contains commonly used mathematical operations
Compiler converts to machine language
Interpreter
Execute high-level language programs without compilation

14.History of C and C++
C++ evolved from C, which evolved from BCPL and B
C
Developed at Bell Labs
Popularized as the language of the UNIX operating system
C++
Deveoped by Bjarne Stroustrup
Provides object-oriented programming capabilities
Hybrid language
Objects
Reusable software components that model real-world items
Attributes and behaviors

15.Object Oriented Programming
Classes
Data Members
Member Functions
Member Access specifiers
Objects 

PPT On Microprocessor And it's Architecture

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Microprocessor And it's Architecture Presentation Transcript:
1.The Microprocessor and its Architecture

2.Intel Architecture

3.Programming Model

4.General-Purpose Registers
The top portion of the programming model contains the general purpose registers: EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, EBP, ESI, and EDI. 
These registers, although general in nature, each have special purposes and names.
EAX – Accumulator (as general as they come) used also as AX, AH, and AL
EBX – Base Index often used to address memory data (BX, BH, and BL)

5.ECX – count used in shifts and loops (CX, CH, and CL)
EDX – data used in multiply and divide (DX, DH, and DL)
EBP – base point used to address stack data (BP)
ESI – source index addresses memory data (SI)
EDI – destination index addresses memory data (DI)

6.Special-Purpose Registers
The special purpose register each have specific tasks and are ESP, EIP, and EFLAGS
ESP – address stack data used in functions (procedures) and temporary storage (SP)
EIP – addresses the next instruction in a program (IP)
EFLAGS – indicates conditions of the microprocessor (FLAGS)

7.FLAGS

8.The Flags
C – holds a carry or a borrow
P – the parity flag (little use today)
A – auxiliary flag used with DAA and DAS
Z – zero
S – sign
O – Overflow
D – direction (used with string instructions)
I – interrupt (interrupt on/off)
T – trap flag (trace on/off)

9.Newer Flag Bits
IOPL – I/O privilege level for Windows
NT – nested task
RF – resume flag
VM – virtual mode
AC – alignment check
VIF – virtual interrupt (copy of interrupt flag)
VIP – virtual interrupt pending
ID = CPUID instruction available

10.Segment Register  
The segment registers are: CS (code), DS (data), ES (extra), SS (stack), FS, and GS.
Segment registers address a section of memory in a program.  A segment is either 64K in length (real mode) or up to 4G in length (protected mode).
All code (programs) reside in the code segment.

11.Default Segments for Offset address

12.Real Mode Memory Addressing
Real mode memory is the first 1M of the memory system.
All real mode addresses are a combination of a segment address plus an offset address.
The segment address (16-bits) is appended with a 0H or 00002 to form a 20-bit address.  (or multiplied by 10H)
The effective address is this 20-bit segment address plus a 16-bit offset address.

13.Defaults
Default 16-bit addresses are programs in CS, stack data in SS, and most other data in a program in DS.
Default 32-bit addresses are programs in CS, stack data in SS and most other data in DS.
What’s the difference?  16-bit addresses use offset addresses in BX, SI, DI, BP, or an offset numeric value.  32-bit addresses use offset addresses in EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, EBP, EDI, ESI or a numeric value.
Programs resides in segment CS addressed by IP/EIP
Stack data resides segment SS addressed by SP/ESP

14.Effective Address Calculations
EA = segment x 10H plus offset
        (a)   10023 = 10000 + 0023
        (b)    ABC34 = AAF00 + 0134
        (c)    21FF0 = 12000 + FFF0
Example (a) contained 1000 in the segment register, example (b) contained a AAF0 in the segment register, and example (c) contained a 1200 in the segment register.  

15.Relocation
Segment and offset addressing allows for easy and efficient relocation of code and data.
To relocate code or data only the segment number needs to be changed.  For example, if an instruction appears at offset address 0002 the segment address does not matter because if it changes so does the effective address of he instruction.

PPT On Kruskal’s Algorithm

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Kruskal’s Algorithm Presentation Transcript:
1.Minimum Spanning Trees

2.Kruskal’s Algorithm
Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

3.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

4.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

5.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

6.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

7.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

8.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

9.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

10.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

11.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

12.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

13.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

14.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}

15.Kruskal()
{
   T = ?;
   for each v ? V
      MakeSet(v);
   sort E by increasing edge weight w
   for each (u,v) ? E (in sorted order)
      if FindSet(u) ? FindSet(v)
         T = T U {{u,v}};
         Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}
 

PPT On Heapsort

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 Heapsort Presentation Transcript:
1.Design and Analysis of Algorithms

2.Sorting Revisited
So far we’ve talked about two algorithms to sort an array of numbers
What is the advantage of merge sort?
What is the advantage of insertion sort?
Next on the agenda: Heapsort
Combines advantages of both previous algorithms
Worst case O(n lg n) – like merge sort.
Sorts in place – like insertion sort.

3.Heaps
A heap can be seen as a complete binary tree:

4.A heap can be seen as a complete binary tree:
The book calls them “nearly complete” binary trees; can think of unfilled slots as null pointers

5.In practice, heaps are usually implemented as arrays:

6.Heap data structure
To represent a complete binary tree as an array:
The root node is A[1]
Node i is A[i]
The parent of node i is A[i/2] (note: integer divide)
The left child of node i is A[2i]
The right child of node i is A[2i + 1]

7.Referencing Heap Elements

8.The Heap Property
Heaps also satisfy the heap property: (for max-heaps)
    A[Parent(i)] ? A[i]        for all nodes i > 1
In other words, the value of a node is at most the value of its parent
Where is the largest element in a heap stored?
Definitions:
The height of a node in the tree = the number of edges on the longest downward path from node to a leaf
The height of a tree/heap = ???

9.Heap Height
What is the height of an n-element heap? Why?

10.Heap Operations: Max-Heapify()
Max-Heapify(): maintain the heap property
Given: a node i in the heap with children l and r
Given: two subtrees rooted at l and r, assumed to be heaps
Problem: The subtree rooted at i may violate the heap property (How?)
Action: let the value of the parent node “float down” so subtree at i satisfies the heap property

11.Heap Operations: Max-Heapify()
Max-Heapify(A, i, n)
    l = Left(i);  r = Right(i);
    if (l <= n and A[l] > A[i])
        then largest = l
    else
        largest = i
    if (r <= n and A[r] > A[largest])
        then largest = r
    if (largest ? i)
        then Swap(A[ i], A[largest])
                Max-Heapify(A, largest,n)


12.Max-Heapify() Example

13.Heap sort Trace

14.Heapify

PPT On INSERTION SORTING

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INSERTION SORTING Presentation Transcript:
1.Design and Analysis of Algorithms

2.An Example: Insertion Sort
        Our first algorithm is insertion sort
Input : A sequence of n numbers
Output : A permutation (reordering) of the input sequence such that 

3.An Example: Insertion Sort

4.InsertionSort(A)
1  for j ? 2 to length[A] 2       do key ? A[j] 3      % Insert A[j] into the sorted sequence A[1,…,j-1]
4             i ? j - 1 5       while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) 6         do A[i+1] ? A[i] 7              i ? i - 1 8       A[i+1] ? key       

5.InsertionSort(A)
1  for j ? 2 to length[A] 2       do key ? A[j] 3      % Insert A[j] into the sorted sequence A[1,…,j-1]
4             i ? j - 1 5       while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) 6         do A[i+1] ? A[i] 7              i ? i - 1 8       A[i+1] ? key       

6.InsertionSort(A)
1  for j ? 2 to length[A] 2       do key ? A[j] 3      % Insert A[j] into the sorted sequence A[1,…,j-1]
4             i ? j - 1 5       while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) 6         do A[i+1] ? A[i] 7              i ? i - 1 8       A[i+1] ? key       

7.InsertionSort(A)
1  for j ? 2 to length[A] 2       do key ? A[j] 3      % Insert A[j] into the sorted sequence A[1,…,j-1]
4             i ? j - 1 5       while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) 6         do A[i+1] ? A[i] 7              i ? i - 1 8       A[i+1] ? key       

8.An Example: Insertion Sort
InsertionSort(A)
1  for j ? 2 to length[A] 2       do key ? A[j] 3      % Insert A[j] into the sorted sequence A[1,…,j-1]
4             i ? j - 1 5       while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) 6         do A[i+1] ? A[i] 7              i ? i - 1 8       A[i+1] ? key       


9.InsertionSort(A)
1  for j ? 2 to length[A] 2       do key ? A[j] 3      % Insert A[j] into the sorted sequence A[1,…,j-1]
4             i ? j - 1 5       while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) 6         do A[i+1] ? A[i] 7              i ? i - 1 8       A[i+1] ? key       

10.InsertionSort(A)
1  for j ? 2 to length[A] 2       do key ? A[j] 3      % Insert A[j] into the sorted sequence A[1,…,j-1]
4             i ? j - 1 5       while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) 6         do A[i+1] ? A[i] 7              i ? i - 1 8       A[i+1] ? key